At the ancient Khmer temple of Angkor Wat, an American artist discovered a special peace that she carried throughout her life…and beyond.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

By STEPHEN GOLDFARB, Alabama Heritage Magazine

IN 1926 LUCILLE SINCLAIR DOUGLASS (1878-1935) visited the ancient Cambodian ruins at Angkor for the first time. That December the forty-eight-year-old artist wrote to her friend Leona Caldwell of her first impressions of this far-off and exotic place:

“Angkor is one of the really great experiences of my life-a more intellectual than emotional experience — not that it left me cold, quite the contrary — but it was more of an uplift — an inspiration.

“Our stay — longer than most tourists — was all too short — Angkor Wat alone requires years of study — living with understanding — a few days seems but a mockery.

“I have never had a place affect me so peculiarly. . . . I shall go back for a time as long as I can stand it and do further study on the spot.

“You see the ruins are set in the midst of the jungle — which held them in its clutches for so many centuries that it still seems jealous of them.”

Douglass described the Angkor climate as “the most trying [that] I have ever encountered … [with its] great humidity and high temperatures — an oppressive heaviness which brought all the moisture to the surface [of one's skin] and left you exhausted with the slightest effort.” And this complaint comes from a woman who grew up in central Alabama.

Douglass rendered Angkor Wat's western entrance in 1927 in this 10 7/8" x 14 1/2" etching. Courtesy US Library of Congress.

But Douglass did return the very next year.

She spent five months there with the purpose of rendering the temples and other ruins in etchings, which could capture their grandeur and intricacy in a way that photography could not. These etchings were first exhibited in April 1928 in Washington, D.C., under the auspices of the French ambassador, and then at the French Colonial Exhibition in Paris in 1931. The story of just how Douglass made her way from the Black Belt of Alabama to the jungles of Cambodia is one of equal parts natural talent, hard work, and fortuitous circumstances.

LUCILLE DOUGLASS WAS BORN ON NOVEMBER 4, 1878, in Tuskegee, Alabama, the daughter of Walton Eugene Douglass (a Civil War veteran) and Mary Sinclair (Mollie) Douglass. She grew up in a large house but in the genteel poverty that characterized so much of the nineteenth-century, postbellum South.

Little is known about Douglass’s early years, except that she was a sickly child who spent a great deal of time reading, favoring books about travels to distant and exotic lands. In interviews she gave after gaining a measure of fame, Douglass singled out the all-but-forgotten travel stories of Hezekiah Butterworth — whose seventeen volumes of Zig-Zag Journeys enjoyed considerable popularity among young readers near the end of the nineteenth century — as having stimulated her yearning for adventure.

Lucille Douglass - 1896. Courtesy Birmingham Public Library, Leona Caldwell Collection.

Douglass received her A.B. (baccalaureate degree) in 1895 at the age of seventeen at Alabama Conference Female College, a forerunner of Huntingdon College, where her mother taught. Unfortunately, records do not survive to describe Douglass’s course of study, though it seems safe to assume that she continued to receive art training from her mother, a practice begun when Douglass was a child.

In 1899 Douglass moved to Birmingham, where she made a living as both an artist and an art teacher. She occupied a studio in the old Watts Building between 1901 and 1908. The 1907 city directory listed her as a “china painter.”

Years later Douglass made reference to the hundreds, perhaps thousands, of roses that she painted on teacups and other crockery. The sale of this china, as well as hand-painted place cards, financed her future art training. In 1908 she banded with fellow artists Delia Dryer, Hannah Elliot, Carrie Hill, and four other female artists as founding members of the Birmingham Art Club.

Lucille Douglass in her studio with Hannah Elliot, 1907. Courtesy Birmingham Public Library, Hill Ferguson Collection.

Even before Douglass left for Europe in 1909, she sought art training beyond what was available in Birmingham. For several summers she attended the Art Students League in New York City, though there is no record with whom she studied. Between the years 1909 and 1912, she received art training in Europe.

In Paris she studied with Lucien Simon and René Menard. Of greater importance was the time she spent with Alexander Robinson. With his classes she traveled all over Europe-Holland, Spain, and Italy-and North Africa and became his assistant and an art teacher. After her first year with Robinson, she asked him for a frank evaluation of her work; his reply was indeed frank: “You have less talent than many, but you will go farther than the rest because once you undertake a thing you see it through.”

Lucille Douglass in Paris, 1911. Courtesy Birmingham Public Library, Hill Ferguson Collection.

A collection of her drawings and pastel sketches held in the Birmingham Museum of Art reflect her traditional art training, which emphasized the anatomically correct rendering of the human figure, and depict the local folkways of the places she visited. With two exhibits of her paintings displayed in Paris in 1911, she was on her way to establishing herself as an artist.

By 1913 Douglass had returned from Europe. She spent that summer with artist Isabelle Percy (who married George P. West in 1916), painting in the northern part of Percy’s home state of California.

World War I ended any further hopes of European travel and training and proved a trying time. City directories show that she kept a residence and studio in Birmingham from 1915 to 1917. Some sources claim that she took training as a nurse and worked with soldiers who were “shell shocked,” and that she herself had some kind of mental breakdown, for which she spent time recovering in Texas and California.

Her life took a fresh turn in 1920, when the forty-two-year-old Douglass accepted a position with the Methodist Missionary Society. She was employed to oversee a workshop in Shanghai in which Chinese women hand-colored an early form of photographic slide used by speakers to publicize the missionary work of the society. The job did not absorb all of her time and energy apparently, for she became first a writer and then associate editor of the weekly English-language publication, Shanghai Times, a position she held until 1924. During these years she traveled extensively in China as a member of the press. These trips were often dangerous, as China was in the midst of revolution and civil war.

While in China, Douglass became close friends with two female writers whose books she would eventually illustrate. Florence Wheelock Ayscough was born in Shanghai to missionary parents and educated in New England. She became a scholar of China and its literature, writing books about China and translating the works of early Chinese poets. Four of her books were illustrated by Douglass, the first three with ink drawings and the last with etchings.

Helen Churchill Candee

The second friend Douglass made in China was Helen Churchill Candee, who had, among other things, the distinction of surviving the 1912 sinking of the HMS Titanic. Roughly two decades apart in age, the two traveled together from November 1926 until January 1927.

This journey led them through the Far East-first to Indochina, then to Siam, and on to Java and BaIi. This adventure resulted in the 1927 publication of Candee’s book, New Journeys In Old Asia, for which Douglass executed twenty-one etchings. It was also on this journey that Douglass first visited Angkor. Candee had been there before and had published the book Angkor the Magnificent in 1924.

Angkor was the seat of the ancient Khmer empire from the ninth to the fifteenth century and was abandoned, only to be rediscovered in the 186Os by French explorers after Cambodia became part of the French overseas empire. Angkor — best known for the two complexes, Angkor Wat and the larger Angkor Thom — was the center of what is considered the most prosperous and sophisticated civilization in the history of Southeast Asia.

Angkor was not only a religious center but also the administrative center of the Khmer empire, with a vast system of reservoirs, canals, and moats-the basis of an extensive irrigation system for agriculture. Eventually the Khmers were overthrown, and the jungle reclaimed Angkor, though the ruins remained a pilgrimage site for Buddhists.

Etching of the Bayon rendered by Lucille Douglas in 1927, measuring 15 9/16" X 11 13/16". Courtesy Library of Congress.

Douglass saw more in Angkor than simply an exotic artistic subject. She gave detailed lectures on Angkor in both the United States and Europe. She also spoke on Angkor at the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the School of Oriental Studies at the University of London, the Royal Asiatic Society (also in London), and at Oxford University, as well as many less august bodies. On January 10, 1930, she gave a talk at the National Geographic Society entitled “Angkor — A Royal Passion.” The brochure announcing the lecture gave the following description:

Knowledge of present conditions at the site of the ancient Cambodian metropolis will come to the Society through this interesting speaker, writer and artist, who will illustrate her talk with lantern slides, colored by herself, and motion pictures.

…In company with French archeologists Miss Douglass carefully examined the new excavations…. Her account will be authoritative, as well as entertaining.

For the last years of her life, Douglass made New York her home base, though she traveled frequently to Europe and occasionally visited Birmingham. From November 1928 until late spring of 1929, she was a faculty member of a “floating university.” On the ship President Wilson, Douglass taught art history, sketching, and painting to a hundred “boys and girls” of unspecified age as the ship sailed around the world.

An article in the November 6, 1928, New York Evening Post referred to Douglass as “one of America’s best known painters and etchers” and stated that the ship’s itinerary would include such exotic places as Siam, BaIi, Java, and Singapore, as well as “all the cities … on the more usual type of tour.”

In a letter to her friend, Leona Galdwell, Douglass wrote of her “floating university” experience: “I am glad … to have had the experience, though I should not care to repeat it.”

Lucille Douglas poses for a portrait in North Africa, date unknown. Courtesy Birminham Public Library Archives.

In a 1933 interview she gave to the New York World Telegram, a fifty-five-year-old Douglass reflected over her life of art and adventure:

I have made my life as I wanted it. I have given up marriage and home ties, because I know they would not be possible with my career. I am sorry not to have a home, but one must not be greedy. I have planned my life just as it is, and I am content with it.

After an illness that lasted several months Douglass died on September 26, 1935, in the home of a friend in Andover, Massachusetts.

Her remains were cremated and, in the following year, flown to Angkor where they were spread around what was described as “a magnificent mango tree.”

Under a spreading mango tree
(Encircling continuity)
There lies for all eternity
What particles survive the flame
Of one who now is but a name.

Civilizations long forgot
Left beauty in old Angkor Vat
An artist loved it well and true:
In paint and print she saved the view.
When she was called, she had one thought:
That was to lie in Angkor Vat.

What doth her Spirit — Who shall say
Where beauty reigns both night and day?
Free as air she is to roam.
With spreading mango tree for home.

Angkor Wat lotus pond sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Lucille’s Artistic Legacy

In the five years following her death there were three exhibits of Douglass’s works in New York galleries and a fourth after World War II in her adopted hometown of Birmingham.

Lucille Douglass pastel created between 1909 and 1913. Courtesy Birmingham Museum of Art. Gift of the estate of Leona Templeton Caldwell.

In January 1951 the Birmingham Historical Society and the Birmingham Art Club sponsored a retrospective of her works at the Birmingham Public Library, which brought pieces owned by museums together with those held by local collectors.

However, very little was written on Douglass over the next half-century, nor was her art exhibited. This was due no doubt to the triumph of abstraction and other modernist movements in art that made the works of Lucille Douglass seem old-fashioned.

Fortunately, there has been a renewed appreciation for her art in recent years, fueled by the current interest in female artists. The publication of Art of the New South: Women Artists of Birmingham, 1890-1950 (Birmingham Historical Society, 2004) by Vicki Leigh Ingham, which devotes an entire chapter to Lucille Douglass, is likely to be the beginning of a revival of interest in this accomplished artist and world traveler.”

About the Author

Stephen J. Goldfarb holds a Ph.D. in the history of science and technology from Case Western Reserve University. In 2007-2008, he curated the exhibit entitled “Howard Cook: Drawings of Alabama” for the Mobile Museum of Art and at the Huntsville Museum of Art.

Goldfarb has written articles previously for Alabama Heritage on artists Marian Acker Macpherson and Lucille Douglass. He now serves Alabama Heritage Quarterly History Magazine as a contributing editor for the “Reading the Southern Past” column. No stranger to Southern reading tastes, Goldfarb retired from the Atlanta-Fulton Public Library in 2003. He has reviewed books for both newspapers and scholarly journals.

© Copyright 2006 University of Alabama – This article previously appeared in Alabama Heritage magazine (Summer 2006, Issue 81) and is reproduced here with the kind permission of the author and the University of Alabama.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Siem Reap, Cambodia – Angkor Wat temple, the symbol of modern Cambodia, embodies the genius, beauty and power of the Khmer civilization that first civilized what is now Southeast Asia.

Angkor Wat is unlike any other ancient temple on Earth because of the treasure it protects: its vast walls and corridors enshrine a delicate legacy, the exquisite portraits of more than 2,000 Khmer women known as devata. Whether they represent goddesses from heaven or queens here on earth is unknown.

Each day, these sanctified women welcome a new sunrise with the promise of abundance, fertility, peace and enlightenment for this land, and for all who wish to see their message. The heart of Angkor Wat is very much alive and the devata still offer humankind hints of our celestial place in the universe.

Special thanks to architect and photographer Gary Ng, who captured this magnificent series of sunrise photos at Angkor Wat on his first visit to Cambodia. For more of his work, please visit http://gnostec.wordpress.com/

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat sunrise. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat was built as a Hindu temple honoring Vishnu between 1,115-1,150 AD. Cambodia adopted Buddhism in the 13th century and Buddhist monks have maintained the temple since that time. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Angkor Wat enshrines more than 2,000 portrait carvings of ancient Khmer women. Their identity and meaning remain a mystery. © Copyright Gary Ng.

Can India’s vibrant goddess traditions help us decipher the mysteries of the women of Angkor Wat?

By Kent Davis

The Hindu temple of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia

Siem Reap, Cambodia - Angkor Wat, the renowned 12th century Hindu temple now located in the jungles of Cambodia, is much more than the largest religious structure in the world. This Khmer temple also has a human side: for nearly 1,000 years, it has enshrined the images of more than 1,796 sacred women.

Angkor Wat devata from the bakkan, the highest, most sacred level of the temple. Photo: Kent Davis

The puzzling fact is that no one knows who the women of Angkor Wat were and what principles of spirituality or government they represent. Why these female were chosen to dominate this magnificent structure with their prominent presence remains a mystery.

Each female portrait at Angkor Wat is distinctly different, with myriad varieties in their pose, hand positions (mudras), ethnicity, jewelry, clothing, hair style, accoutrements and location.

Almost no written records detailing the Khmer civilization have survived through the ages. The best account we have is from the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan, who visited 150 years after Angkor Wat was built.

Daguan makes no secret of his interest in Khmer women. He comments in detail about the importance of women in conducting business, the huge numbers of women who live in the palace and even to ogling women as they bathed topless. Despite his fascination, one of many questions Daguan does not answer is: Why did the Khmers populate their greatest temples with respectful images of women?

Devata.org is dedicated to understanding these women, and to paying tribute to them in the context of their contributions to the greatness of the Khmer civilization. Some clues may be found in India, where many aspects of the Khmer civilization originated.

This article considers Indian Yogini traditions, which involve both female worshipers and female divinities. It is unknown if the Khmer religion at the time of Angkor Wat had similar female-centric traditions. However, it is quite clear that Khmer temples prominently featured sacred women to the near exclusion of men.  A handful of Indian Yogini temples exhibit this same trait.

This article examines one Indian temple that, like Angkor Wat, predominantly features female images: the Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur.

What is a Yogini?

The word Yogini in Devanagari Sanskrit script

The term Yogini, used in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions,  has multiple meanings. These aspects are drastically simplified for this article and readers are encouraged to investigate more specialized sources.

First, it can refer to a human woman dedicated to pursuing spiritual knowledge and enlightenment through the practice of Yoga. A male practitioner is called a Yogi. Through her practice, a Yogini may acquire certain supernatural powers including the power to control bodily functions (i.e. heartrate, fertility, resistance to pain or cold and metabolism), or even the ability to fly.

Lakshmi (wealth/material fulfillment), Parvati (Power/love/spiritual fulfillment), and Saraswati (learning and arts/cultural fulfillment) joined in a single manifestation of Devi. Painting by V.V. Sagar.

A Yogini’s path may include the practice of Tantra (Sanskrit=weave), a religious philosophy focusing on the interplay between the male and female forces of the universe embodied by Shakti and Shiva.

Yogini can also refer to personifications of aspects of nature, manifested from the Divine Mother Goddess, or Devi. These Yoginis include the ten Mahavidyas (also called the Great Wisdoms or dakini) who represent the spectrum of feminine divinity, from beautiful and gentle to violent and terrifying.

In some branches of Yoga and Tantra, these powerful manifestations serve as models for human Yogini practitioners to emulate.

Another definition characterizes Yoginis as aspects of the Hindu goddess Durga, who is another form of Devi. During a battle to save the universe, Durga emanated eight Yoginis to achieve her goal. In some systems they are called Matrikas. Later texts multiplied these 8 into 64 Yoginis representing the full range of forces in the world, controlling fertility, disease, abundance, vegetation, life and death itself.

The variety,  complexity and power of the Yogini traditions are such that the final understanding of this concept is best left to the individual. For the purposes of this discussion we will summarize by broadly stating that Yoginis are range of women, from human to divine, who represent, control or seek to control powerful forces of nature, including life itself.

The images in the Yogini temples of India and the spiritual practitioners who have worshiped there for more than a millennium are all somehow connected to the Yogini tradition.

Yoginis, Goddesses or…Goblins?

Early Yogini accounts by Europeans focused on their horrific aspects. For broader understanding consider Buddhist Goddesses by Miranda Shaw and Kiss of the Yogini by David Gordon White.

In his report for the Archaeological Survey of India 1862-65, Director General Alexander Cunningham had this to say about the yogini temple at Khajaraho:

Sri Dhanendri - Photo by Raju-Indore.

“Chaonsat Yogini, or the “64 female goblins,” appears to be the most ancient temple at Khajaraho.

“It is the only one of all the temples that is not placed due north and south. It is also the only temple that is built of granite, all the others being of a fine light coloured sandstone from the quarries on the east bank of the Kane River. The Joginis, or Yoginis, are female goblins who attend upon Kali, the goddess of slaughter.

“When a battle takes place, they are said to rush frantically to the field with their bowls to catch the blood of the slain, which they quaff with delight. In the Prabodha Chandrodaya they are called the “spouses of demons who dance on the field of battle.”

“From their connection with the blood-drinking goddess Kali, it is probable that the temple may have been originally devoted to Siva — a suggestion which is partly confirmed by the position of a small shrine of Ganesha on the same rocky ridge immediately in front of the entrance. But as the Brahmans on the spot assert that the dedication of a temple to the Yoginis ensures victory to the dedicator, it is possible that this temple may still retain its original name.

“Vans Kennedy’s Hindu Mythology (p. 490) mentions the names of six Yoginis — Brahmi, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Mahendri — who were all called by Siva to devour the flesh and drink the blood of the great Daitya Jalandhara.

“Under this view, however, we might expect to find the temples of the Yoginis rather numerous, as many generals would be willing to purchase victory at so cheap a rate. But as this is the only shrine of these goddesses that I have yet met with, I am inclined to doubt the tradition, and to assign the temple to Durga or Kali, the consort of Siva.”

Could the Women of Angkor Wat be Yoginis?

In direct contrast to the women of Angkor Wat, a considerable amount of written information has been passed down regarding the sacred women depicted in India’s Yogini temples. While much is known about Indian Yoginis, next to nothing is known about the women of Angkor Wat, also known as devata or apsaras. Could they represent Yoginis, too?

Angkor Wat devata from the east wall of the West Gopura.

If they are Yoginis, they are all certainly quite reserved in their demeanor and seem to represent only the gentler aspects of the Yogini pantheon.

The women of Angkor Wat display no horrific or supernatural attributes or abilities. In fact, they appear quite normal, lacking fangs, halos, multiple eyes, wings or other fantastic features.

No woman at Angkor Wat appears as a sakti, the manifestation of the female aspect of a god, sometimes seen with the animal head of a boar, bull, horse or lion.

Nor do the Angkor Wat women possess necklaces or cups made from human skulls, skeletons or weapons among their accouterments.

All of the devata at Angkor Wat are standing in dignified poses with both feet firmly on the ground. None are seated. Only a few assume kinetic positions that can be associated with dance.

Still, portrayed in a temple, the women of Angkor Wat do share a divine residence with their Yogini sisters. Some also display similar hand positions (mudras), jewelry adornments and an association with plants and flowers from nature. As admirers have noted for centuries they are frequently quite attractive, but there are many exceptions.

The women of Angkor Wat only seem to only represent an harmonious relationship with nature, while Indian Yoginis evoke more the full range of creation, including violent aspects.

Perhaps there is a connection between these two extraordinary groups of women but it is not immediately obvious. A good place to start is by examining IndianYogini temples, using the specific example of the Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur.

Yogini Temples – Natural, Circular and Hypaethral

In India, Brahmins have long held that sangam, the confluence of two rivers, are especially sacred because the mingling waters of two streams are considered more effective at washing away sins. This is why Bheraghat, where the Narbada and Saraswati rivers meet, is an especially holy bathing spot.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat and the central Gauri Sankara temple dedicated to Lord Shiva in the center..

High on a hill near the river junction we find one circular yogini temple, whose courtyard protects the Gauri Sankara temple devoted to Lord Shiva (see details at the bottom of this article).

The circular form is unusual for Brahmin enclosures ; but it is the correct form for temples dedicated to the Chaunsat Yoginis (i.e 64 yoginis). Two other Yogini temples of this form are in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial. A fourth yogini temple at Khajaraho is oblong. All of them are hypaethral, or open to the sky.

The circular Yogini temple of Bheraghat is 130 feet in diameter (its inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches). Using 84 pillars, its perimeter is divided into as many spaces. Each of the 84 cloisters or alcoves constitutes a separate shrine measuring 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves. Three niches—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—remain open as entrances. The remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals for statues of sacred women. Only two male statues appear in the temple.

The Yogini Temple Statues at Bheraghat

Among the statues at Bheraghat two poses are seen: sitting and standing. Many are damaged and a few are missing entirely. Most are four-armed goddesses who, early writers noted, “are especially remarkable for their breast size.”

Early reports characterized most of these images as “Yoginis or female demons who serve Durga.” The temple is, therefore, commonly known as the Chaunsat Yogini, or “sixty-four yoginis.”

The yogini temple of Bheraghat, circa 1875.

Eight figures are identified as ashta sakti, or female energies of the gods. Three seem to be personified rivers. All the sitting figures are taken to be Yoginis. Each one is highly ornamented and made of a grey sandstone.

Four dancing female figures are not inscribed (Nos. 39,44, 60 and 78]. These are made of a purplish sandstone and are much less ornamented. One of them, No. 44, is thought to be the goddess Kali. The others seem to be other forms of that deity.

Siva and Ganesha [Nos. 15 and 1] are the only two male figures.

The result of this examination shows that the statue set up in this circular cloister may be divided into five distinct groups as follows:

Saktis, commonly known as ashta-sakti………….8 statues

Rivers: Ganges, Jumna, and Saraswati………….3

Dancing goddesses: Kali, etc……………………..4

Gods: Siva and Ganesha……………………………2

Yoginis, or chaunsat yogini, 57 intact, 7 lost…..64

Total………………………………………………….81

Two entrances [= 3 spaces]………………………3

Total…………………………………………………..84

For a complete detailed inventory of the Chausath yogini temple goddesses and gods please visit this page. This article is based on Archaeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75.

NOTE: The inventory is entirely based on the Archeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75. Unfortunately, modern photos of the site vary from some names and locations originally cited. Please contact me (kentdavis@gmail.com) if you can help clarify these discrepancies. Ideally I would like to include a clear photo of every statue on this website.

OTHER RESOURCES

Complete Inventory of Yogini Statues at Bheraghat

This page includes a detailed list of all the images recorded in the Chausat Yogini temple in 1875.

Indian Temples and Iconography

Kavitha offers an excellent collection of more than 200 well-written articles about Indian spirituality, many of which directly relate to understanding the sacred women of the Khmer race. A few of her fascinating articles are about Gandharvas and Apsaras in the celestial world, the Chaunsat Yogini Shrine, Tripura Sundari, the Goddess Chamundeshwari…and so many more.

Yogini temple of Hirapur

This article describes yogini temples that were active between 9th and 13th centuries.

Voyage au Cambodge: l’architecture khmer

Based on his 1866 journey to Cambodia with Doudart de Lagrée, Louis Delaporte noted the similarity of Khmer design to the yogini temple of Khajaraho, and others:

“…enfin le temple Chauonsat Jogini Khajurao dont les soixante-quatre niches en forme de petites préasats sont terminées par des cercles décroissants cannelés semblables aux couronnes de lotus des sommets khmers.” (p. 425)

Details about the Gauri Sankara Temple at Bheraghat (1875)

In the center of the Chaunsat Yogini shrine is Gauri Sankara temple, the top of which is a comparatively modern structure. It was the personal temple of Rani Durgavati (1524-1564) of Kalchuri dynasty. Directly in front of the shrine a heavy stone slab covers a tunnel that led from Rani Durgavati’s chambers in his Madan Mahal palace-fort to the temple.

Gauri Sankara shrine. Photo by Raju-Indore.

This central shrine is made up of old carved stones as well as bricks. For unknown reasons, it is asymmetrical and is not located in the center of the enclosure, nor does its mid-line correspond with the mid-line of the enclosure. The shrine’s basement, however, is ancient and undisturbed so this seems to correspond with the original plan.

Gauri Sankara Temple at Bheraghat.

The original central shrine was erected in 1,155 AD, making it exactly contemporaneous with Angkor Wat (1,116-1,150 AD). It was built by the Kalachuri Queen Alhanadevi during the reign of her son Narasimhadeva. The front wall of the sanctum still bears an inscription referring to the daily worship of the deity Gauri-Sankara by Gosaladevi, the mother of the Kalachi King Vijayasimhas (1,180-1,195 AD).

Inside, there are a group of five images. Between 1863-65, Indian Archeological Survey of Indian noted that the group is 4 feet 1 1/2 inches high and 2 feet 7 1/2 inches wide. These measurements corresponded exactly with the cloisters outside suggesting that the group was were originally there.

The images are:

1. Vishnu and Lakshmi on Garuda in dark-blue stone.
2. Surya, standing with Arun, driving the seven horses of the sun (this one is 3 feet 6 inches high by 1 foot 10 inches broad).
3. A small Hara-Gauri, (Siva and Parvati).
4. A Small figure of Ganesha.
5. A figure of Dharmma, a 4-armed female, 1 foot 10 inches high, with a small figure of Buddha in the head-dress. Flying figures with garlands above, and the traces of the Buddhist creed inscribed on the base.

To some, the presence of this Buddhist figure suggests that the circular cloister may have once surrounded a Buddhist stupa. The letters of the inscription, however, are of a later date than those inscribed on the statue pedestals, which appear to be an integral part of the original structure.

Details about the Chaunsat Yogini Temple Dimensions (1875 notes)

The cloister’s inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches. The cloister consists of a circular row of 84 square pillars, with the same number of full pilasters arranged opposite to them against a back wall. The actual cloister is only 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves, with a rise of 8 1/2 inches above the ground. The back wall is 2 feet 7 1/2 inches thick. The eaves are formed by a 10-inch projection of the architrave, which is sloped away in a graceful curve, as shown in the section of the cloister.  The whole is roofed with large slabs of stone from 8 to 9 inches thick, which are molded on both front and back, and form a graceful finish to this fine colonnade.

Cross section of the yogini temple showing how the alcoves are build.

The number of pillars being 84, the cloister is divided into as many spaces or intervals. Three of these—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—are left as entrances; while the remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals between the pilasters for the reception of statues. Each of these pedestals is 3 feet 5 inches long, 1 foot 8 inches broad, and 1 foot high. The pillars are 10 1/2 inches square, and the intervals between them 3 feet 5 1/2 inches. But the intervals between the back pillars is 3 feet 7 1/2 inches, so that the pedestals just fit in between them ; and they were no doubt an integral part of the original structure.

Sitting statues are generally 4 feet 2 inches tall, and 2 feet 5 1/2 inches broad.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat and the central Gauri Sankara temple dedicated to Lord Shiva in the center..

The Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur enshrines 64 yoginis and 15 other female goddesses. Shiva and Ganesha are the only two male gods.

The temple and its possible relevance in relation to Angkor Wat are discussed in this article.

The yogini temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur, circa 1875.

The cloister’s inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches. This ring is divided into a circular row with 84 square pillars so that each cloister is only 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves.

Using 84 pillars, the cloister is divided into as many spaces. Three niches—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—remain open as entrances. The remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals between the pilasters for the statues.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat.

Among the statues two poses are seen: sitting and standing. Most are four-armed goddesses who are especially remarkable for their breast size. Most images are yoginis (Sanskrit), or female demons who serve Durga. The temple is, therefore, commonly known as the Chaunsat Yogini, or “sixty-four yoginis.”

Eight figures are identified as ashta sakti, or female energies of the gods. Three seem to be personified rivers. All the sitting figures are taken to be yoginis. Each one is highly ornamented and made of a grey sandstone.

Four dancing female figures are not inscribed (Nos. 39,44, 60 and 78]. These are made of a purplish sandstone and are much less ornamented. One of them, No. 44, is thought to be the goddess Kali. The others seem to be other forms of that deity.

Siva and Ganesha [Nos. 15 and 1] are the only two male figures.

NOTE: The inventory below is based on the Archaeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75. Unfortunately, modern photos of the site show variations to the names and numbering system originally cited. Please contact me  (kentdavis@gmail.com) if you can help clarify these discrepancies.

Complete detailed inventory of the Chausath yogini temple goddesses and gods:

1. Sri Ganesha — Sitting god.

2. Sri  Chhattra Samvara — A Sambar deer, with deer decorating this seated yogini’s pedestal. The allusion to chhattra is not understood..

3. Sri Ajita — This seated goddess is the feminine form of Ajita-Siva, “the unconquered” with a fabulous lion as her symbol.

4. Sri Chandika — Durga-Maheswari, “ the furious,” featuring skeletons and a prostrate man. A standing sakti goddess who is known as one of the “eight powers of Durga.”

5. Sri Mananda — Probably named for Ananda, the  happy, or joyful. The symbol with this seated yogini is the lotus.

6. Sri Kamadi — The seated feminine form of Kamada, the fabulous cow of plenty that sprang from the Sea of Milk. Kamadi is therefore the goddess who grants all desires; her symbol of the yoni suggests that the desires are sexual. Two males are worshipping her.

7. Sri Brahmani —The goose on the pedestal indicates that this goddess is the sakti, or female energy, of Brahma.

8. Sri Maheswari —The bull Nandi on the pedestal shows that this goddess is the sakti, or female energy, of Maheswara, or Siva.

9. Sri Tankari — Probably derived from tanka, a sword or axe, both weapons which are carried in two of the ten hands of this yogini. Her symbol is a fabulous lion.

10. Sri Jayani — The “conquering” goddess is featured seated. Her symbol is a feline.

11. Sri Padma-hansa — This seated goddess is not known. Her symbol is flowers.

12. Sri Ranajira — Seated goddess of the “battle field” symbolized with an elephant.

13. Name lost — This seated goddess is symbolized by “Nagni” (?).

14. Sri Hansini , or Hansinira. — Unknown seated goddess with the symbol of the goose.

15. Not inscribed — A 16 armed 3-eyed Siva (male).

16. Sri Iswari — This seated yogini represents sakti, or female energy, either Durga or Lakshmi.

17. Sri Thani — The immovable goddesss. Sthanu is a name of Siva meaning “firm” or “immovable.” Derived from stha to stay, or sthd to stand still. Her appropriate symbol is the mountain peak.

18. Sri Indrajali — She is a seated “deceiving” goddess. Her elephant symbol suggests the name of Indra, with perhaps an allusion to his well-known deceits.

19. Broken — A seated yogini with a bull and skeletons among her symbols.

20. Statue missing.

21. Sri Thakini — Unknown seated goddess, however due to the camel symbol on her pedestal, linguists suggest Ushtrakini, or the cameline goddess.

22. Sri Dhanendri —Dhan means to “sound” but it is spelt with the dental dh. The name may simply mean the “sounding goddess.” She is depicted seated with a prostrate man worshipping her.

23. Statue missing.

24. Sri Uttala may mean the “swift goddess,” as implied by the antelope symbol. She is seated.

25. Sri Lampata — The “courtesan goddess” depicted seated with a prostrate male worshipper.

26. Sri Uha — This seated goddess may be the personification of the Saraswati River. Yogini 29 and 68 personify the Ganges and Jumna. The name may be derived from Uha, “to reason” meaning the “reasoning goddess” — an appropriate name for Saraswati, the goddess of speech and eloquence. This theory is supported by the peacock on her pedestal, which is the symbol of the Saraswati river.

27. Sri *tsamada — Seated goddess with a boar on her pedestal. The initial letter unknown.

28. Sri Gandhari — A winged goddess, with the symbol of a horse or ass. The name may be connected with gandharvva, “a horse,” associated with swiftness, which is also implied by her wings.

29. Sri Jahnavi —This is a well-known name of the Ganges; and as her symbol is a makara, or “crocodile,” it is certain that this is the river goddess herself.

30. Sri Dakini —This seated yogini is characterized by the Hindi term, dakin, the common name for a witch or she-demon. She has the symbols of a man and a skeleton.

31. Sri Bandhani — This seated goddess’s name is derived from bandh, to bind, or bandhan, hurting, injuring, killing. Historians suggest that the man on the pedestal may be a prisoner.

32. Sri Darppahari — Probably a mistake for Darbbahari. Darbba means a rakshasa, or demon, from dri, to “tear;” and darbbahari would be the “tearer,” — a title confirmed by the lion on the pedestal, and by the seated goddess’s lion head.

33. Sri Vaishnavi is the name of the sakti, or personified energy of Vishnu. She is seated on Vishnu’s mount garuda on the pedestal.

34. Sri Danggini — First letter doubtful. A seated yogini also featuring garuda.

35. Sri Rikshini — A crocodile is featured on the pedestal of this yogini. The value of the first letter is uncertain (see No. 27). The symbol of the crocodile seems to point to a river goddess; and Rikshini would be the name of the Narbada, which rises in the Riksha mountain. A female figure at Tewar, standing on a crocodile, is called Narbada mai, or “Mother Narbada.”

36. Sri Sakini — Wilson describes sakini as “a female divinity of an inferior character, attendant equally on Siva and Durga.” Others remark that “in the Baital Pachisi sakinis are mentioned in connection with cemeteries.” They are, in fact, the female goblins whom Raja Vikram saw eating the dead bodies. The symbol of a vulture on the pedestal of this seated goddess is, therefore, appropriate.

37. Sri Ghantali — The “bell” yogini, with a bell or ghanta on her pedestal.

38. Sri Tattari — The name implies a kettle-drum, or any musical instrument. We presume that name refers to the “trumpet,”’ as the seated goddess has an elephant’s head, and there is an elephant on the pedestal. Tatta is the imitative sound of the trumpet, like tantarara in English.

39. Not inscribed — A dancing female.

40. Sri Ganggini — The first letter is doubtful. The symbol seen is a bull.

41. Sri Bhishani — The “terrific goddess”…as in “terror”  is seated with a rayed headdress. Bhishana is a name of Siva.

42. Sri Satanu Sambara —Sambara refers to the Sambar deer, which is also seen on the pedestal of this seated goddess.

43. Sri Gahani — Ram on pedestal of this seated goddess. The first letter is doubtful. The name may mean the destroying goddess, from gah, to destroy.

44. Not inscribed — A dancing female in the style of Kali.

45. Sri Duduri — The derivation is not clear: du means “bad,” and also “to give pain.” Perhaps it is only a duplication of dur = pain, which would imply the “pain-giving” yogini. The symbol of the saddled horse remains puzzling on this seated yogini.

46. Sri Varahi — One of the saktis of Vishnu, as the Varaha Avatara. There is a boar on the pedestal, and this seated sakti goddess has a boar’s head.

47. Sri Nalini—perhaps from nal, “to bind.” There is a bull and cow on the pedestal, and the seated yogini has a cow’s head.

48. SE Entrance

49. Statue missing.

50. Sri Nandini is the title of this seated goddess Parvati. The lion on the pedestal implies that Nadini, or “roarer” may be her true name.

51. Sri Indrani —As there is no Aindri in this collection, this seated goddess Indrani must be intended as the sakti, or female energy, of Indra.

52. Sri Eruri, or Ejari — The first reading seems preferable. The yogini has a cow’s head, and there is a cow on her pedestal.

53. Sri Shandimi — Shanda means a bull; but the animal on the pedestal of this broken figure appears to be a donkey.

54. Sri Ainggini — An elephant-headed goddess, with an elephant-headed man on her pedestal. The name seems to refer to ingga, “movable,” which is itself derived from igi, “to go.”

55. Name lost — A seated goddess with a boar’s head and a boar on her pedestal.

56. Sri Teranta, or perhaps Techanta — This 20-armed seated goddess has a figure of Mahesasura on her pedestal, so her title must relate to a name of Durga, who is also called Mahishasuramardini (mardini = killer, fem.), the destroyer of Mahishasura.

57. Sri Paravi — Perhaps a mistake for Parvati, as the seated goddess has 10 arms, which point to Durga.

58. Sri Vayuvena — This broken figure’s name means “Swift as the wind.” The antelope on the pedestal may allude to her swiftness.

59. Sri Ubhera Varddhani — “The increaser of light” is the name of this broken goddess image. There is a class of 64 demi-gods named abhaswaras who, from their number, appear to have a connection with the 64 yoginis. The bird on the pedestal gives no assistance towards the meaning of the name.

60. Not inscribed — A dancing female with an elephant symbol on her pedestal.

61. Sri Sarvvato-mukhi — This goddess has 12 arms and 3 heads, with a head also between her breasts. The number of heads explain the name of  “Facing everywhere.” Her pedestal displays the leaves of the lotus and six points of a double triangle which may allude to her name.

62. Sri Mandodari­ — The name of this broken yogini means “slow-belly.” Sri Mandodari was also the name of the daughter of King Mayasura of the Danavas and the celestial dancer Hema. Mandodari was a pious woman who feared nothing but unrighteousness and lies. Her beauty and appeal led her to become the first, and favorite, wife of Ravana, the Lord of Lanka. On her pedestal two men worship her with folded hands.

63. Sri Khemukhi — The long-beaked bird on the pedestal seems to refer to the name, which may perhaps be translated “voracious mouth”” from khed, to eat. Her statue is broken.

64. Sri Jambavi — The “bear goddess,” with a bear on her pedestal, evidently points to Jambavat, the fabulous king of the bears who was the father-in-law of Krishna. This statue probably had a bear’s head; but it is now broken.

65. Sri Auraga — The first letter is not certain, and the statue is broken. A naked man on the pedestal does not offer any more clues about this figure.

66. Statue Missing.

67. Sri Thira-chitta — Probably intended for Sthira-chitta, “the firm or steady minded.” This seated goddess shows a man praying with folded hands on her pedestal.

68. Sri Yamuna — This seated goddess is the river Jumna personified. The tortoise on the pedestal was her symbol.

69. Statue Missing.

70. Sri Vibhasa — Either connected either with vibheshu, “terrible,” or with vibhitsu, “the piercer.” The skeleton and prostrate man on the pedestal suggest an appellation of Durga.

71. Sri Sinha-sinha — This lion-headed goddess, with the lion headed-man on her pedestal, is probably intended for Narasinha, the sakti or female energy of the Narasinha avatara.

72. Sri Niladambara — Probably the same as Nilambara, a female demon. The garuda on this yogini’s pedestal established her connection with Vishnu.

73. Statue worn away — A flame is still seen on the pedestal of this seated goddess.

74. Sri Antakari — A seated goddess, with open mouth, ready to devour — must mean the “death-causer,” from anta, “end or death.” Antaka is a name of Yama, the god of death; but the bull on the pedestal seems to refer to Siva, who, as Pasupati, is also the god of death and destruction.

75. Name lost — This seated goddess displays a long-nosed bull on her pedestal.

76. Sri Pingala — This seated goddess’s name means “tawny, or brownish-red.” The peacock on the pedestal points to Eaumari, the sakti of Skanda Kumara or Karttikeya.

77. Sri Ahkhala — On the pedestal two men with folded hands worship this seated sakti goddess. The reading of the name is clear but the meaning is unknown.

78. Not inscribed — A dancing yogini with a bird pictured on her base.

79. Sri Kshattra-dharmmini — The compound kshattradharmma means the duty of a kshattra, or soldier, i.e. bravery. But as kshattra is derived from kshad, “to eat, to rend, to tear to pieces,” the title of this goddess would mean the “tearer to pieces, or the devourer.” The image shows seated females with skulls in head-dresses. A bull with a chain appears on her pedestal.

80. Sri Virendri — Another images with seated females armed with sword and shield. The pedestal has a horse’s head and skeletons. Perhaps the name should be Vairendri, the “inimical goddess,” rather than Virendri, the “heroic goddess.”

81. Statue missing.

82. Sri Ridhali Devi — The seated “hurtful goddess,” from rih, to “hurt.” The animal, with claws, on the pedestal seems to confirm this derivation.

83-84 – West Entrance.

The result of this examination shows that the statue set up in this circular cloister may be divided into five distinct groups as follows:

Saktis, also called ashta-sakti……………………..8 statues

Rivers: Ganges, Jumna, and Saraswati…………3

Dancing goddesses: Kali, etc………………………4

Gods: Siva and Ganesha…………………………..2

Yoginis (chaunsat yogini) 57 intact, 7 lost……….64

Total……………………………………………………..81

Two entrances [= 3 spaces]…………………………3

Total……………………………………………………..84

Yogini statue inscriptions.

Angkor Wat is fast becoming one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. A South Korean grant will help reduce impact on Angkor's irreplaceable heritage.

By Kent Davis

Siem Reap, Cambodia – The Angkor World Heritage Site is fast becoming one of the most popular exotic tourist destinations in the world. And there lies the problem: too many tourists and too much traffic will damage the irreplaceable heritage of the Khmer civilization. The government of South Korea has just offered to help by funding a new road that will protect the temples from their own popularity.

Between the 9th and 15th centuries the Khmer civilization flourished in northern Cambodia, ruling most of Southeast Asia and building hundreds of magnificent stone temples in the lush jungle. Most famous is the awe-inspiring Hindu temple of Angkor Wat, which has remained the largest religious monument in the world since Khmer King Suryavarman II built it in the 12th century.

Angkor Wat enshrines the portraits of more than 1,780 sacred Khmer women.

Angkor Wat’s long corridors feature complex bas-relief carvings depicting stories of the creation of the universe, the royalty of the Khmers, and ancient legends based on Hindu epics. The temple also protects the largest collection of ancient female portraits in the world: more than 1,780 sacred Khmer women appear on the walls of Angkor Wat with fantastic costumes and accessories proving the Khmer’s cultural sophistication. And Angkor Wat is just one of hundreds of exquisite temples in the area.

In 1992, UNESCO declared the Angkor area a World Heritage Site, as well as including it on the World Heritage in Danger List to save it from further destruction. Tourism remains a vital part of Cambodia’s economy with nearly 1.5 million foreign tourists coming to admire the monuments each year, mostly from South Korea, Japan, China, Australia, Europe and the United States. More than half of these tourists visit Angkor but the impact of tourism has been felt.

The vast site is managed by the APSARA Authority, a Cambodian government body that is constantly working to improve tourist traffic and facilities while protecting their nation’s heritage. International organizations like the Global Heritage Fund, World Monument Fund, Friends of Khmer Culture and Heritage Watch International also contribute to the ongoing effort of keeping this important world history accessible.

The new South Korean grant will provide $9.2 million to Cambodia to build a road that will encircle the Angkor temple complex, thereby reducing traffic in the sensitive temple area. APSARA Authority Vice Secretary General Soeung Kong stated that the 21-kilometer road will be closed to trucks to reduce pollution, noise and vibrations that could damage the ancient ruins. Construction will begin in 2010 and is projected to take three years to complete.

This is the second Angkor area road funded by South Korea, according to South Korean Embassy official Son Sungil. The first road extended south from the temple complex.

To Cambodia With Love

Secrets of the sacred women of Angkor Wat; a tarantula brunch in the remote Cambodian countryside; hikes in the misty Cardamom Mountains; a leisurely cyclo ride through the streets of Phnom Penh…savor these experiences and other insights from savvy expatriates, seasoned travelers, and inspired locals.

To Cambodia With Love is a unique journey of discovery seen through the eyes of more than sixty experienced Asian travelers.

Contributors include Angkor expert Dawn Rooney (Angkor: Cambodia’s Wondrous Temples), acclaimed memoirist Loung Ung (First They Killed My Father), Nick Ray, author of The Lonely Planet Guide to Cambodia, Devata.org researcher Kent Davis (Daughters of Angkor Wat) and may others. According to the editor more than 63 writers contributed to the final edition.

The book pairs each essay with practical facts enabling travelers to follow in the writer’s adventurous and imaginative footsteps.

To Asia With Love

In addition to his personal contributions, the entire collection was edited by Cambodian resident Andy Brouwer, who for years has captivated readers around the world with his detailed accounts of life in Cambodia.

Renowned cultural photographer, Tewfic El-Sawy brings the entire collection of tales to life for readers with vibrant, full-color photographs.

With precious tips on dining, shopping, sightseeing, and culture, To Cambodia With Love is a one-of-a-kind guide for passionate travelers.

Based on the highly praised To Asia with Love: A Connoisseurs’ Guide to Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam.

— “… a guide with depth and color that most of [its] competitors lack …” - International Herald Tribune

— “… breaks new ground in the travel writing field …” - Untamed Travel

— “… a refreshing addition to the traveler’s bookshelf … evocative and eclectic …” - Chic Travel Thailand

— “… a delightful introduction to Cambodia and the Mekong region for those looking for some inspiration and adventure.” - Lonely Planet Cambodia

— Honorable Mention - Independent Publisher Book Awards

Angkor Wat, Cambodia – This article identifies working counts and locations of all devata (sacred female) images in Angkor Wat. We have numerically identified 1,796 devata at the temple, not including those on the high towers.

In her 1926 study, Sappho Marchal cited 1,737 devata, possibly not counting some that are partially completed, worn away, covered by stone blocks (sealed doorways on level A1) or “aerial devata” located on Angkor Wat’s top towers.

Angkor Wat's main structure with key devata locations labeled.

DatAsia’s numbering system identifies devata carvings sequentially in five defined structural areas.

A1 – Angkor Wat Top Level (Bakan) + Central Tower

A2 – Angkor Wat Second Level + 2 Libraries

A3 – Angkor Wat Third Level (outside only) + 2 Libraries

Angkor Wat West Gopura (entry gate)

A4 – The West Gopura – Entry gate to Angkor Wat

A5 – Angkor Wat South + West Gates (no devata at North Gate)

Our numbering convention identifies the Level; Structure; Inside/Outside Location (relative to the center of the temple); Sequential Devata Number + Additional Details (this can include the feature, photographer, raw photo number, etc.)

e.g. A4-GW-I-009-K
This means the devata is located in area A4, Gate West, Inside, Devata #009, photo by Kent Davis

All numbering begins at the southwest corner of each structure and goes sequentially counter clockwise (from South to North on the West Gopura).

Devata Inventory at Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat Devata - West Gopura

A1 – 407

Central Tower – 64   (#001-062)
Central Tower Aerial – 16 (NW-NE-SW-SE x 4)
OUTSIDE – 201   (#001-198)
INSIDE – 126   (#001-124)

A2 – 647

A2 OUTSIDE – 341   (#001-328)
A2 INSIDE – 222   (#001-217)

A2 Libraries
North – 44   (#001-044)
South – 40   (#001-040)

A3 – 414

OUTSIDE – 241   (#001-241)
INSIDE- 0

A3 Libraries
North – 46   (#001-046)
South – 20   (#001-020)

Angkor Wat Devata - West Gopura

West Inside Chambers
Center – 28   (#001-028)
North & South – 8+8   (#001-016)

Cruciform Gallery
North – 34  ( #001-034)
South – 29   (#001-029)

A4 – Gate West – 259

West (OUTSIDE) – 119   (#001-119)
East (INSIDE) – 124   (#001-122)
Entry Chamber North – 8   (#001-008)
Entry Chamber South – 8   (#001-008)

A5 – 69

A5-South Gate – 25   (#001-024)
A5-East Gate – 40   (#001-040)
A5-West Library – 4*   (#001-004)

Total: 1,796 unique devata

*These devata are a different style and appear to have been added during the reign of Jayavarman VII or later. There are other devata with questionable styles that may also have been added later.

The A1 exterior towers may also have as many as 16 devata each, which could increase the inventory by 64 additional devata.

NOTE: Original DatAsia numbers were assigned to correspond with the German Apsara Conservation Project database so that data could be compared.

Unfortunately, the GACP database has numerical anomalies due to later additions. For this reason, some numbers have more than one devata (e.g. 100a, 100b). This, therefore, results in areas such as A1 Outside, where the numerical sequence only goes to 198 but covers a population of 201 devata.

Another issue is that the GACP system numbers counterclockwise, even for devata inside levels A1 and A2. This means that they are numbered right to left (…3, 2, 1) instead of left to right (1, 2, 3…), which is less intuitive when viewing.

When the Devata.org database is complete a final, sequentially perfect number will be assigned to each devata portrait. In the meantime, however, we continue to use the legacy system for easier cross referencing.

Devata (sacred female image) defaced at Beng Melea - 2008.

Feature by Erin Linn

Phnom Penh, Cambodia - On February 9, 2010, a number of key government and foundation officials gathered to introduce ICOM’s Red List, defining irreplaceable treasures of Cambodian heritage protected under law. As staff worker with Heritage Watch International, it was my honor to present our organization’s initiatives to counter illicit trafficking of cultural objects.

The creation and publication of the RedList is a true sign of the national and international support for the protection of Cambodia’s outstanding cultural heritage.  Dr. Dougald O’Reilly, the Director of Heritage Watch, was one of many experts who contributed to compiling the RedList.   Heritage Watch is honored to be among the many organizations working to preserve Cambodia’s patrimony.

Heritage Watch was founded in 2003 due to a sharp increase in the destruction of Cambodia’s precious cultural heritage – especially the looting of ancient temples and cemetery sites nationwide.  Heritage Watch’s mission consists of five key elements:

1. To study threats to cultural heritage, including the illicit trade in antiquities, the looting of archaeological sites, and loss of historic architecture;
2. To educate and increase awareness among the public of the profound importance of heritage resources;
3. To increase access to and awareness of national and international law affecting cultural property, while working with the proper authorities to implement, enforce, and improve it;
4. To promote responsible and sustainable tourism practices that further cultural and economic development and encourage the tourism industry to support the arts, culture, heritage and development;
5. To foster communication between relevant governmental and intergovernmental agencies, nongovernmental organizations, academic institutions, and individuals.

Heritage Watch is currently developing and implementing three projects in an effort to achieve the overall mission of the organization and further efforts to counter illicit trafficking of cultural objects.

1. Heritage Development at Banteay Chhmar

In November 2009 Heritage Watch received the Archeological Institute of America’s Site Preservation grant to implement a heritage protection and community development program at Banteay Chhmar.  The project goals are to educate local residents on the benefits of protecting Cambodia’s heritage, to deter looting of archaeological sites, and provide training in tourism practices that protect cultural heritage.

Heritage Watch will be working with a number of dynamic groups there including the Global Heritage Fund, the Community Based Tourism group (or CBT) at Banteay Chhmar, Meanchey University, and local government.

Our methods include implementing English language training, Guide Training, Heritage Protection education for CBT members, and village workshops to educate rural communities about the importance of protecting local heritage.

2. The DHARMA Antiquities Protection Database Project

Stolen devata (sacred female image) at Preah Kahn

In 2008 Heritage Watch began developing the Database of Historical and Archaeological Regulations for the Management of Antiquities (DHARMA).  Cambodia has taken significant and important steps towards protecting its cultural heritage, and a solid framework has been set in place.  There is still much to be done, however, to further develop that framework.

The DHARMA project presents a range of legal reforms to strengthen legal protection of Cambodia’s cultural property. Heritage Watch will work with Cambodian government officials  to compile, publish, analyze and improve the country’s legal framework for heritage management.

DHARMA has won the support of the APSARA Authority; the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts (MoCFA); the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning, and Construction (MoLMUPC), the US Embassy, the American Bar Association, and various legal professionals and academics in the field.  By unifying communications between Cambodian government departments and international organizations and experts, DHARMA will help them to identify and draft the necessary legislation to continue improving Cambodia’s legal protection of its cultural heritage.

3. The Heritage Friendly Tourism Campaign (HFT)

Educating tourists and tour operators with heritage safe practices.

Angkor Wat, the Angkor Heritage Park and other magnificent temples and monuments of the Khmer civilization attract millions of visitors to Cambodia each year, making them one of the country’s most valuable resources.   Although tourism is vital to economic development, it can often have negative impacts on heritage sites, threatening the continuing stream of economic benefits.

The HFT Campaign teaching the importance of protecting Cambodia’s cultural heritage and maintaining sustainable tourism practices at heritage sites. It accomplishes these goals by provides educational resources and training for local communities, tourism operators, and tourists.

In collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism, the APSARA Authority, the Cambodian Community Based Eco-Tourism Network and various other government and non-government  organizations, Heritage Watch is working to implement a Heritage Protection, Guide Training, Development Program for a number of Community Based Tourism  groups associated with or near Heritage sites.

Our project at Banteay Chhmar models many of the objectives of the HFT Campaign: educating local communities about protecting Cambodian heritage, deterring looting of archaeological sites, and providing CBT groups with the training and skills needed to directly benefit from tourism while protecting their cultural heritage.

In 2010, Heritage Watch is working to reinvigorate and strengthen its efforts to protect Cambodia’s cultural heritage.  The Red List is a significant step towards promoting and achieving this objective. This Heritage Watch article on VOA News details exactly how this information is used to stop crime and antiquities trafficking.

Moving forward, Heritage Watch plans to continue collaboration and cooperating with the Cambodian government, international governments, and local and international organizations.  Heritage Watch is proud to contribute to this effort and we sincerely thank all of our partners and associates for their pro-active actions in protecting Cambodia’s rich historic inheritance.

One of the world's most visually stunning heritage museums.

THE RED LIST OF CAMBODIAN ANTIQUITIES AT RISK

Hosted by The National Museum of Cambodia

Welcome address by :
H.E. Chuch Phoeurn
Secretary of State, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts

Mr. HAB Touch
Director of the National Museum of Cambodia

Presentations by:

H.E. Mr. HIM Chhem
Minister of Culture and Fine Arts of Cambodia

H.E. Ms. Carol A. Rodley
Ambassador of the United States of America to Cambodia

Ms. CHAU SUN Kérya
Director of Angkor Tourist Development Department, ASPARA Authority

Major General KEO Vannthan
Commissariat General of National Police, National Central Bureau of INTERPOL

Erin Lin
Project Officer of Heritage Watch

Mrs. Jennifer Thévenot
International Council of Museums (ICOM) Programme Activities Officer

"The Armies of Angkor: Military Structure and Weaponry of the Khmers" by Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h

Michel Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Orchid Press, and Michael Smithies as translator of the original French edition, are all to be congratulated for the publication of this book with its intriguing subject. As Jean Boisselier points out in his Preface, the study of narrative bas-reliefs in the temples of Angkor have been of great importance for our understanding of a society that left behind such a limited number of written—or, more correctly, incised—records.

Today, as scholarship has advanced so substantially, it is all too easy, even for a less-than-casual visitor to Angkor, to fail to recognise how much has been deduced from approximately 1,200 inscriptions, many of which have little to do with the material life of the Angkorian period. It is in these circumstances that the importance of narrative bas-reliefs has long been recognised.

Lunet de Lajonquiere, whose fame rests on his having been responsible for mapping temple sites throughout Cambodia in the first two decades of the twentieth century, observed in 1911 that temple bas-reliefs constituted ‘a veritable mine of information’ about Angkorian society and urged scholars to exploit this ‘mine’. This was a challenge partially met by George Groslier, in his “Recherches sur les Cambodgiens, d’apres les textes et les monuments depuis les premiers siecles de notre ere”, published in Paris in 1921. And through his work, and that of others, much information has been assembled about daily life in Cambodia. The bas-reliefs along the outer galleries of the Bayon are, of course, the best-known sources in this regard.

Yet, again quoting Boisselier, surprisingly enough the armies so frequently displayed in these bas-reliefs have not received the attention they deserve, and it is here that our gratitude must go to the present author. In meticulous detail, and sensibly using line drawings rather than photographs for the greater clarity this achieves, he deals with the entire gamut of military aspects associated with the royal armies that existed during the reigns of Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII and which were depicted on three key temples: Angkor Wat, the Bayon and Banteay Chhmar.

Armies of Angkor - Figure 29

In doing so, Michel Jacq-Hergoualc’h sets himself three aims: the selection of bas-reliefs and the study of the weapons used by the different constituents of the army; the study of these constituent parts and their relative importance to each other; and, finally, an examination of the crowds of people surrounding the armies that are depicted. All of this is done against the conclusion that, contrary to the assumptions of various previous commentators, the Khmer armies were not modelled on traditional armies in India.

In each of the sections just mentioned the author approaches his task in detail, so that what follows is greatly simplified and should be seen in this light. In terms of weaponry, Jacq-Hergoualc’h makes clear that, with the exception of a limited number of ‘war machines’, for example, a chariot-like mount with defensive shielding used by warriors to launch their spears (figure 29, page 37) or other primitive ‘ballistae’, including ones mounted on elephants, the armaments of the Khmer army were ‘fairly primitive’ and included swords of various types, axes, bows and arrows and spears.

From his examination of the bas-reliefs, the author concludes that the Khmer armies of the period under review were composed of four basic corps: war chariots, cavalry, elephants and the infantry. To this he adds a further classification, allies and mercenaries, while giving separate attention to enemies, and treating the use of boats for warfare as a separate classification. In his detailed examination of these various fighting arms the author comes to a conclusion that would not surprise soldiers of many wars, past and present. Impressive though the cavalry might have been, and intimidating as the elephants surely were, in the end it would seem that the most important role in any battle was that played by the group known for centuries, irreverently, as the ‘poor bloody infantry’.

As the author puts it, the elephants were ‘so impressive, so numerous, so cumbersome, and possibly so useless’. Images of tanks, incompetently used as they were during the First World War, before their role was rethought by strategists as diverse as Liddell Hart, Charles de Gaulle and Hans Guderian, immediately come to mind. And likewise with his analysis of battles fought on water, the images that he conjures up sit more closely with accounts of Salmis or even Lepanto than any later naval engagements in which armaments and manoeuvrability played a vital role. To the extent the bas-reliefs have a story to tell, it is of the boats of rival armies seeking to join battle alongside each other, with the hope of each boat’s crew that it could board and overcome its opponents.

Following his discussion of accessories and camp followers, the author offers a tightly formulated ‘conclusion’ reinforcing his arguments for the paramount importance of the infantry and the uniquely Khmer character of the army. But he does more, for he allows his imagination, soundly based on what he has written and analysed previously, to give us a picture of how he believes the army appeared as it marched off to battle. It is a vision of colour and noise, of a ‘shimmering multitude of parasols, standards and insignia’, of bells and strummed instruments and ‘the booming gong’. As he writes, ‘what a din that must have made!’

Specialist in character though this book undoubtedly is, its appearance will be welcomed by all those for whom a visit to Angkor is more than an occasion for a brief, if wondrous, excursion. The author is to be commended for his contribution to our greater understanding of a society that still remains so elusive in many ways.

Review by Milton Osborne

The Armies of Angkor: Military Structure and Weaponry of the Khmers by Michel Jacq-Hergoualc’h, translated from the French by Michael Smithies.

First English edition, 2007. 200 pp., 4 plans and 154 line drawings, bibliography, index, 24.5 x 17.5 cm., hardcover.

Dr. Milton Osborne

About the Reviewer

Milton OSBORNE is an independent scholar based in Sydney. He is also adjunct professor in the Faculty of Asian Studies at the Australian National University, Canberra, and the author of ten books on the history and politics of Southeast Asia including Phnom Penh: A Cultural History, which is nowavailable on Kindle as an instant download.

Acknowledgement

This review originally appeared in the Journal of the Siam Society, Volume 96. The Siam Society, based in Bangkok since 1904 and under Thai Royal Patronage, promotes knowledge of Thailand and the surrounding region, including many profound works relating to Khmer studies.

Devata.org thanks the reviewer and the the Siam Society for kindly allowing the reproduction of this article in our archive.

By Michelle Vachon – The Cambodia Daily

© 2010 The Cambodia Daily – This article appears with the kind permission of the copyright holder. No further reproduction is permitted.

Phnom Penh, Cambodia - In 1295, a young Chinese diplomat by the name of Zhou Daguan left the port of Mingzhou in southeast China, bound for Angkor as part of an official Chinese delegation. Little is known of Zhou Daguan — even his name would vary in docu­ments after his death — except for the fact that he took copious notes on life in the Khmer kingdom dur­ing his 11 month stay, which were probably kept for an official report but later turned into a book.

"A Record of Cambodia: Its Land and its People" by Zhou Daguan. Translated by Peter Harris.

Zhou Daguan’s observations of Angkor ended up being the only remaining record on daily life and cus­toms at the Khmer citadel.

As he mentioned in his notes, the Khmer had books: they wrote ordinary texts and official docu­ments with chalk on died-black parchment while Buddhist monks wrote on palm leaves. Those texts, however, have long disappeared, possibly destroyed by humidity, rain and war, while the administrative and religious texts carved on stone at Angkor give no details on ordinary life at the time.

In 1902, the French scholar and Chinese expert Paul Pelliot translated Zhou Daguan’s work into French, and until recently, English-language versions of the book were translations of Mr Pelliot’s French text.

This prompted Peter Harris, a British researcher and international development specialist who studied classi­cal Chinese literature and culture at Oxford University, to translate Zhou Daguan’s book directly from Chinese to English and to publish this new version.

The project; on which Mr Harris casually embarked in the mid-2000’s, became much more complicated than anticipated, he explains in his book released under Zhou Daguan’s original title “A Record of Cambodia, The Land and its People.”

“Putting a 700-year-old book into readable English is not easy to do, especially when the book is written by a subject of one country now very remote from us, about another country about which we understand even less,” he writes.

For instance, Zhou Daguan wrote Khmer words as they sounded to him based on the Chinese pronunciation of his era, Mr Harris says.

“Chinese being a non-alphabetic writing system, its sound system has changed over time without us know­ing exactly how;” which adds to the difficulty of identifying foreign words in Chinese texts, he explains.

Identifying monuments and locations described by Zhou Daguan also was no easy task. Beside the fact that the names of temples and places have changed, the Chinese diplomat does not specify whether “stone tower” or “north lake” are actual names of places or just his way of describing them. And since literary Chinese does not have the equivalent of capital letters or other marks for proper nouns, it is virtually impossible to know, Mr. Harris said.

Whenever possible, Mr Harris put in brackets the names of monuments or locations as they are called today, such as Angkor Wat or Terrace of the Elephants.

Mr Harris’ book starts with a chapter on China and the and the southeastern region from which Zhou Daguan came, which puts the Chinese diplomat’s comments on Angkor in the context of his own society and culture, and helps make readers aware of the preconceived ideas and prejudices at may have colored his views.

Originally from a small town near the bustling port city of Wenzhou in southeastern China, Zhou Daguan would have grown up surrounded by, Mr Harris writes, “traders, merchants and sailors, broad-minded outward-looking well-versed in the affairs of the world.”

While Zhou Daguan reveals his appreciation of good living in his descriptions of life at court, festivals and food he appears slightly prudish in his comments on sexuality, which was typical of men of his background.

Still, Zhou Daguan was eager to report anything that might have captivated his countrymen For example he describes at length a Khmer custom he calls “zhentan,” which consisted of having girls (9 years old in wealthy families and 11 in poor ones) deflowered by a monk.

“I have heard that when the time comes, the monk goes into a room with the girl and takes away her virginity with his hand, which he then puts into some wine. [...] Some say the monk and the girl have sex together, others say they don’t,” Zhou Daguan wrote.

This carving from the 10-13th century Khmer temple of Phanom Rung (now located in Thailand) seems to be the only illustration of a deflowering ceremony similar to what Zhou describes. As a pair of nervous young girls sit to the right (perhaps awaiting their turn), two standing priestesses bear witness as a third person holding a linga squats between the legs of a girl sitting on the ground. The image of the ritual subject has since been censored, however her foot and toes remain visible. This picture and commentary were not part of the original Cambodia Daily review. Photo by Kent Davis.

According to his writing, the Chinese delegation was sent by Emperor Temur Oljeytu Khan to deliver an edict to Khmer King Indravarman III. The diplomats arrived in the Angkorian capital, then called Yasodharapura, in 1296 and returned home in 1297.

In the Khmer capital, gold was everywhere. In the cen­ter of the walled city of Angkor Thorn, Zhou Daguan writes, “is a gold tower [Bayon], flanked by 20 or so stone towers and a hundred or so stone chambers. To the east of it is a golden bridge flanked by two gold lions, one on the left and one on the right. Eight gold Buddhas are laid out in a row at the lowest level of stone chambers.”

He goes on to write about a bronze tower — today’s Baphuon temple; a gold tower in which sleeps the king, now known as Phimeanakas; and a gold tower with a gold lion, a bronze elephant, a bronze cow and a bronze horse, which is now called as Neak Pean temple.

Neak Pean temple view. This illustration was not part of the original Cambodia Daily review. Photo by Kent Davis.

“I suppose all this explains why from the start there have been merchant seamen who speak glowingly about ‘rich, noble Cambodia,’” he wrote.

The young Chinese diplomat described all aspects of life and customs at Angkor, from the New Year celebrations during which the king lighted fireworks and fire­crackers, and ways of settling disputes, to health and ill­nesses, agriculture and trade, flora and fauna, slavery and funerary rites.

Some sections of Zhou Daguan’s book seem incom­plete, which actually is the case, says Mr Harris. His text, which was recopied several times over the cen­turies was greatly cut according to a Chinese book collector of the 17th century, maybe two-thirds of his origi­nal text is missing, Mr Harris writes.

“I dream that one day I will stumble across the rest of his text in some obscure corner of the Chinese world, and so produce a much fuller version of his work,” he said in interview.

British by birth, Mr Harris lives in New Zealand’s capi­tal, Wellington. His career has included heading the BBC Chinese Service and representing the organization Oxfam Great Britain in Cambodia in 1981 and 1982. He has also worked for Amnesty International; represented the Ford Foundation in China; and founded the Asian Studies Institute at Victoria University in Wellington.

A fellow at the Center for Strategic Studies in New Zealand, he managed a human rights and justice sector reform project in Cambodia from 2005 to 2007, and is now working in Kazakhstan on a government-civil society policy project.