Can India’s vibrant goddess traditions help us decipher the mysteries of the women of Angkor Wat?

By Kent Davis

The Hindu temple of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia

Siem Reap, Cambodia - Angkor Wat, the renowned 12th century Hindu temple now located in the jungles of Cambodia, is much more than the largest religious structure in the world. This Khmer temple also has a human side: for nearly 1,000 years, it has enshrined the images of more than 1,796 sacred women.

Angkor Wat devata from the bakkan, the highest, most sacred level of the temple. Photo: Kent Davis

The puzzling fact is that no one knows who the women of Angkor Wat were and what principles of spirituality or government they represent. Why these female were chosen to dominate this magnificent structure with their prominent presence remains a mystery.

Each female portrait at Angkor Wat is distinctly different, with myriad varieties in their pose, hand positions (mudras), ethnicity, jewelry, clothing, hair style, accoutrements and location.

Almost no written records detailing the Khmer civilization have survived through the ages. The best account we have is from the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan, who visited 150 years after Angkor Wat was built.

Daguan makes no secret of his interest in Khmer women. He comments in detail about the importance of women in conducting business, the huge numbers of women who live in the palace and even to ogling women as they bathed topless. Despite his fascination, one of many questions Daguan does not answer is: Why did the Khmers populate their greatest temples with respectful images of women?

Devata.org is dedicated to understanding these women, and to paying tribute to them in the context of their contributions to the greatness of the Khmer civilization. Some clues may be found in India, where many aspects of the Khmer civilization originated.

This article considers Indian Yogini traditions, which involve both female worshipers and female divinities. It is unknown if the Khmer religion at the time of Angkor Wat had similar female-centric traditions. However, it is quite clear that Khmer temples prominently featured sacred women to the near exclusion of men.  A handful of Indian Yogini temples exhibit this same trait.

This article examines one Indian temple that, like Angkor Wat, predominantly features female images: the Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur.

What is a Yogini?

The word Yogini in Devanagari Sanskrit script

The term Yogini, used in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions,  has multiple meanings. These aspects are drastically simplified for this article and readers are encouraged to investigate more specialized sources.

First, it can refer to a human woman dedicated to pursuing spiritual knowledge and enlightenment through the practice of Yoga. A male practitioner is called a Yogi. Through her practice, a Yogini may acquire certain supernatural powers including the power to control bodily functions (i.e. heartrate, fertility, resistance to pain or cold and metabolism), or even the ability to fly.

Lakshmi (wealth/material fulfillment), Parvati (Power/love/spiritual fulfillment), and Saraswati (learning and arts/cultural fulfillment) joined in a single manifestation of Devi. Painting by V.V. Sagar.

A Yogini’s path may include the practice of Tantra (Sanskrit=weave), a religious philosophy focusing on the interplay between the male and female forces of the universe embodied by Shakti and Shiva.

Yogini can also refer to personifications of aspects of nature, manifested from the Divine Mother Goddess, or Devi. These Yoginis include the ten Mahavidyas (also called the Great Wisdoms or dakini) who represent the spectrum of feminine divinity, from beautiful and gentle to violent and terrifying.

In some branches of Yoga and Tantra, these powerful manifestations serve as models for human Yogini practitioners to emulate.

Another definition characterizes Yoginis as aspects of the Hindu goddess Durga, who is another form of Devi. During a battle to save the universe, Durga emanated eight Yoginis to achieve her goal. In some systems they are called Matrikas. Later texts multiplied these 8 into 64 Yoginis representing the full range of forces in the world, controlling fertility, disease, abundance, vegetation, life and death itself.

The variety,  complexity and power of the Yogini traditions are such that the final understanding of this concept is best left to the individual. For the purposes of this discussion we will summarize by broadly stating that Yoginis are range of women, from human to divine, who represent, control or seek to control powerful forces of nature, including life itself.

The images in the Yogini temples of India and the spiritual practitioners who have worshiped there for more than a millennium are all somehow connected to the Yogini tradition.

Yoginis, Goddesses or…Goblins?

Early Yogini accounts by Europeans focused on their horrific aspects. For broader understanding consider Buddhist Goddesses by Miranda Shaw and Kiss of the Yogini by David Gordon White.

In his report for the Archaeological Survey of India 1862-65, Director General Alexander Cunningham had this to say about the yogini temple at Khajaraho:

Sri Dhanendri - Photo by Raju-Indore.

“Chaonsat Yogini, or the “64 female goblins,” appears to be the most ancient temple at Khajaraho.

“It is the only one of all the temples that is not placed due north and south. It is also the only temple that is built of granite, all the others being of a fine light coloured sandstone from the quarries on the east bank of the Kane River. The Joginis, or Yoginis, are female goblins who attend upon Kali, the goddess of slaughter.

“When a battle takes place, they are said to rush frantically to the field with their bowls to catch the blood of the slain, which they quaff with delight. In the Prabodha Chandrodaya they are called the “spouses of demons who dance on the field of battle.”

“From their connection with the blood-drinking goddess Kali, it is probable that the temple may have been originally devoted to Siva — a suggestion which is partly confirmed by the position of a small shrine of Ganesha on the same rocky ridge immediately in front of the entrance. But as the Brahmans on the spot assert that the dedication of a temple to the Yoginis ensures victory to the dedicator, it is possible that this temple may still retain its original name.

“Vans Kennedy’s Hindu Mythology (p. 490) mentions the names of six Yoginis — Brahmi, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Mahendri — who were all called by Siva to devour the flesh and drink the blood of the great Daitya Jalandhara.

“Under this view, however, we might expect to find the temples of the Yoginis rather numerous, as many generals would be willing to purchase victory at so cheap a rate. But as this is the only shrine of these goddesses that I have yet met with, I am inclined to doubt the tradition, and to assign the temple to Durga or Kali, the consort of Siva.”

Could the Women of Angkor Wat be Yoginis?

In direct contrast to the women of Angkor Wat, a considerable amount of written information has been passed down regarding the sacred women depicted in India’s Yogini temples. While much is known about Indian Yoginis, next to nothing is known about the women of Angkor Wat, also known as devata or apsaras. Could they represent Yoginis, too?

Angkor Wat devata from the east wall of the West Gopura.

If they are Yoginis, they are all certainly quite reserved in their demeanor and seem to represent only the gentler aspects of the Yogini pantheon.

The women of Angkor Wat display no horrific or supernatural attributes or abilities. In fact, they appear quite normal, lacking fangs, halos, multiple eyes, wings or other fantastic features.

No woman at Angkor Wat appears as a sakti, the manifestation of the female aspect of a god, sometimes seen with the animal head of a boar, bull, horse or lion.

Nor do the Angkor Wat women possess necklaces or cups made from human skulls, skeletons or weapons among their accouterments.

All of the devata at Angkor Wat are standing in dignified poses with both feet firmly on the ground. None are seated. Only a few assume kinetic positions that can be associated with dance.

Still, portrayed in a temple, the women of Angkor Wat do share a divine residence with their Yogini sisters. Some also display similar hand positions (mudras), jewelry adornments and an association with plants and flowers from nature. As admirers have noted for centuries they are frequently quite attractive, but there are many exceptions.

The women of Angkor Wat only seem to only represent an harmonious relationship with nature, while Indian Yoginis evoke more the full range of creation, including violent aspects.

Perhaps there is a connection between these two extraordinary groups of women but it is not immediately obvious. A good place to start is by examining IndianYogini temples, using the specific example of the Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur.

Yogini Temples – Natural, Circular and Hypaethral

In India, Brahmins have long held that sangam, the confluence of two rivers, are especially sacred because the mingling waters of two streams are considered more effective at washing away sins. This is why Bheraghat, where the Narbada and Saraswati rivers meet, is an especially holy bathing spot.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat and the central Gauri Sankara temple dedicated to Lord Shiva in the center..

High on a hill near the river junction we find one circular yogini temple, whose courtyard protects the Gauri Sankara temple devoted to Lord Shiva (see details at the bottom of this article).

The circular form is unusual for Brahmin enclosures ; but it is the correct form for temples dedicated to the Chaunsat Yoginis (i.e 64 yoginis). Two other Yogini temples of this form are in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial. A fourth yogini temple at Khajaraho is oblong. All of them are hypaethral, or open to the sky.

The circular Yogini temple of Bheraghat is 130 feet in diameter (its inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches). Using 84 pillars, its perimeter is divided into as many spaces. Each of the 84 cloisters or alcoves constitutes a separate shrine measuring 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves. Three niches—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—remain open as entrances. The remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals for statues of sacred women. Only two male statues appear in the temple.

The Yogini Temple Statues at Bheraghat

Among the statues at Bheraghat two poses are seen: sitting and standing. Many are damaged and a few are missing entirely. Most are four-armed goddesses who, early writers noted, “are especially remarkable for their breast size.”

Early reports characterized most of these images as “Yoginis or female demons who serve Durga.” The temple is, therefore, commonly known as the Chaunsat Yogini, or “sixty-four yoginis.”

The yogini temple of Bheraghat, circa 1875.

Eight figures are identified as ashta sakti, or female energies of the gods. Three seem to be personified rivers. All the sitting figures are taken to be Yoginis. Each one is highly ornamented and made of a grey sandstone.

Four dancing female figures are not inscribed (Nos. 39,44, 60 and 78]. These are made of a purplish sandstone and are much less ornamented. One of them, No. 44, is thought to be the goddess Kali. The others seem to be other forms of that deity.

Siva and Ganesha [Nos. 15 and 1] are the only two male figures.

The result of this examination shows that the statue set up in this circular cloister may be divided into five distinct groups as follows:

Saktis, commonly known as ashta-sakti………….8 statues

Rivers: Ganges, Jumna, and Saraswati………….3

Dancing goddesses: Kali, etc……………………..4

Gods: Siva and Ganesha……………………………2

Yoginis, or chaunsat yogini, 57 intact, 7 lost…..64

Total………………………………………………….81

Two entrances [= 3 spaces]………………………3

Total…………………………………………………..84

For a complete detailed inventory of the Chausath yogini temple goddesses and gods please visit this page. This article is based on Archaeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75.

NOTE: The inventory is entirely based on the Archeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75. Unfortunately, modern photos of the site vary from some names and locations originally cited. Please contact me (kentdavis@gmail.com) if you can help clarify these discrepancies. Ideally I would like to include a clear photo of every statue on this website.

OTHER RESOURCES

Complete Inventory of Yogini Statues at Bheraghat

This page includes a detailed list of all the images recorded in the Chausat Yogini temple in 1875.

The 81 Yoginis of Bhedhaghat

Divya Deswal wrote this article with photos of all the goddesses in March 2011.

Indian Temples and Iconography

Kavitha offers an excellent collection of more than 200 well-written articles about Indian spirituality, many of which directly relate to understanding the sacred women of the Khmer race. A few of her fascinating articles are about Gandharvas and Apsaras in the celestial world, the Chaunsat Yogini Shrine, Tripura Sundari, the Goddess Chamundeshwari…and so many more.

Yogini temple of Hirapur

This article describes yogini temples that were active between 9th and 13th centuries.

Tamil Language Version of This Article

 

Santhipriya

இந்தியா மற்றும் காம்போடியாவில் உள்ள யோகினி ஆலயங்கள்– ஆராய்ச்சியாளரின் பார்வையில் --

Santhipriya is a retired government official in Bangalore, India who writes and translates articles relating to Indian history, culture and spirituality.

Voyage au Cambodge: l’architecture khmer

Based on his 1866 journey to Cambodia with Doudart de Lagrée, Louis Delaporte noted the similarity of Khmer design to the yogini temple of Khajaraho, and others:

“…enfin le temple Chauonsat Jogini Khajurao dont les soixante-quatre niches en forme de petites préasats sont terminées par des cercles décroissants cannelés semblables aux couronnes de lotus des sommets khmers.” (p. 425)

Details about the Gauri Sankara Temple at Bheraghat (1875)

In the center of the Chaunsat Yogini shrine is Gauri Sankara temple, the top of which is a comparatively modern structure. It was the personal temple of Rani Durgavati (1524-1564) of Kalchuri dynasty. Directly in front of the shrine a heavy stone slab covers a tunnel that led from Rani Durgavati’s chambers in his Madan Mahal palace-fort to the temple.

Gauri Sankara shrine. Photo by Raju-Indore.

This central shrine is made up of old carved stones as well as bricks. For unknown reasons, it is asymmetrical and is not located in the center of the enclosure, nor does its mid-line correspond with the mid-line of the enclosure. The shrine’s basement, however, is ancient and undisturbed so this seems to correspond with the original plan.

Gauri Sankara Temple at Bheraghat.

The original central shrine was erected in 1,155 AD, making it exactly contemporaneous with Angkor Wat (1,116-1,150 AD). It was built by the Kalachuri Queen Alhanadevi during the reign of her son Narasimhadeva. The front wall of the sanctum still bears an inscription referring to the daily worship of the deity Gauri-Sankara by Gosaladevi, the mother of the Kalachi King Vijayasimhas (1,180-1,195 AD).

Inside, there are a group of five images. Between 1863-65, Indian Archeological Survey of Indian noted that the group is 4 feet 1 1/2 inches high and 2 feet 7 1/2 inches wide. These measurements corresponded exactly with the cloisters outside suggesting that the group was were originally there.

The images are:

1. Vishnu and Lakshmi on Garuda in dark-blue stone.
2. Surya, standing with Arun, driving the seven horses of the sun (this one is 3 feet 6 inches high by 1 foot 10 inches broad).
3. A small Hara-Gauri, (Siva and Parvati).
4. A Small figure of Ganesha.
5. A figure of Dharmma, a 4-armed female, 1 foot 10 inches high, with a small figure of Buddha in the head-dress. Flying figures with garlands above, and the traces of the Buddhist creed inscribed on the base.

To some, the presence of this Buddhist figure suggests that the circular cloister may have once surrounded a Buddhist stupa. The letters of the inscription, however, are of a later date than those inscribed on the statue pedestals, which appear to be an integral part of the original structure.

Details about the Chaunsat Yogini Temple Dimensions (1875 notes)

The cloister’s inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches. The cloister consists of a circular row of 84 square pillars, with the same number of full pilasters arranged opposite to them against a back wall. The actual cloister is only 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves, with a rise of 8 1/2 inches above the ground. The back wall is 2 feet 7 1/2 inches thick. The eaves are formed by a 10-inch projection of the architrave, which is sloped away in a graceful curve, as shown in the section of the cloister.  The whole is roofed with large slabs of stone from 8 to 9 inches thick, which are molded on both front and back, and form a graceful finish to this fine colonnade.

Cross section of the yogini temple showing how the alcoves are build.

The number of pillars being 84, the cloister is divided into as many spaces or intervals. Three of these—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—are left as entrances; while the remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals between the pilasters for the reception of statues. Each of these pedestals is 3 feet 5 inches long, 1 foot 8 inches broad, and 1 foot high. The pillars are 10 1/2 inches square, and the intervals between them 3 feet 5 1/2 inches. But the intervals between the back pillars is 3 feet 7 1/2 inches, so that the pedestals just fit in between them ; and they were no doubt an integral part of the original structure.

Sitting statues are generally 4 feet 2 inches tall, and 2 feet 5 1/2 inches broad.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat and the central Gauri Sankara temple dedicated to Lord Shiva in the center..

The Chaunsat Yogini Temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur enshrines 64 yoginis and 15 other female goddesses. Shiva and Ganesha are the only two male gods.

The temple and its possible relevance in relation to Angkor Wat are discussed in this article.

Photographer Sudhansu Nayak has posted a fascinating visual article related to this one: “64 Yogini Temple, Hirapur – A detailed view inside“

See this related article with detailed photos: “The 81 Yoginis of Bhedhaghat” by Divya Deswal

See this article translated into the Tamil language by Santhipriya here:

The yogini temple of Bheraghat Jabalpur, circa 1875.

The cloister’s inner diameter is 116 feet 2 inches, and the outer diameter 130 feet 9 inches. This ring is divided into a circular row with 84 square pillars so that each cloister is only 4 feet 9 inches wide and 5 feet 3 1/2 inches high under the eaves.

Using 84 pillars, the cloister is divided into as many spaces. Three niches—two to the west, and the other to the south-east—remain open as entrances. The remaining 81 spaces are fitted with pedestals between the pilasters for the statues.

Site plan showing the 84 cloisters of the yogini temple at Bheraghat.

Among the statues two poses are seen: sitting and standing. Most are four-armed goddesses who are especially remarkable for their breast size. Most images are yoginis (Sanskrit), or female demons who serve Durga. The temple is, therefore, commonly known as the Chaunsat Yogini, or “sixty-four yoginis.”

Eight figures are identified as ashta sakti, or female energies of the gods. Three seem to be personified rivers. All the sitting figures are taken to be yoginis. Each one is highly ornamented and made of a grey sandstone.

Four dancing female figures are not inscribed (Nos. 39,44, 60 and 78]. These are made of a purplish sandstone and are much less ornamented. One of them, No. 44, is thought to be the goddess Kali. The others seem to be other forms of that deity.

Siva and Ganesha [Nos. 15 and 1] are the only two male figures.

NOTE: The inventory below is based on the Archaeological Survey of India reports from 1873-75. Unfortunately, modern photos of the site show variations to the names and numbering system originally cited. Please contact me  (kentdavis@gmail.com) if you can help clarify these discrepancies.

Complete detailed inventory of the Chausath yogini temple goddesses and gods:

1. Sri Ganesha — Sitting god.

2. Sri  Chhattra Samvara — A Sambar deer, with deer decorating this seated yogini’s pedestal. The allusion to chhattra is not understood..

3. Sri Ajita — This seated goddess is the feminine form of Ajita-Siva, “the unconquered” with a fabulous lion as her symbol.

4. Sri Chandika — Durga-Maheswari, “ the furious,” featuring skeletons and a prostrate man. A standing sakti goddess who is known as one of the “eight powers of Durga.”

5. Sri Mananda — Probably named for Ananda, the  happy, or joyful. The symbol with this seated yogini is the lotus.

6. Sri Kamadi — The seated feminine form of Kamada, the fabulous cow of plenty that sprang from the Sea of Milk. Kamadi is therefore the goddess who grants all desires; her symbol of the yoni suggests that the desires are sexual. Two males are worshipping her.

7. Sri Brahmani —The goose on the pedestal indicates that this goddess is the sakti, or female energy, of Brahma.

8. Sri Maheswari —The bull Nandi on the pedestal shows that this goddess is the sakti, or female energy, of Maheswara, or Siva.

9. Sri Tankari — Probably derived from tanka, a sword or axe, both weapons which are carried in two of the ten hands of this yogini. Her symbol is a fabulous lion.

10. Sri Jayani — The “conquering” goddess is featured seated. Her symbol is a feline.

11. Sri Padma-hansa — This seated goddess is not known. Her symbol is flowers.

12. Sri Ranajira — Seated goddess of the “battle field” symbolized with an elephant.

13. Name lost — This seated goddess is symbolized by “Nagni” (?).

14. Sri Hansini , or Hansinira. — Unknown seated goddess with the symbol of the goose.

15. Not inscribed — A 16 armed 3-eyed Siva (male).

16. Sri Iswari — This seated yogini represents sakti, or female energy, either Durga or Lakshmi.

17. Sri Thani — The immovable goddesss. Sthanu is a name of Siva meaning “firm” or “immovable.” Derived from stha to stay, or sthd to stand still. Her appropriate symbol is the mountain peak.

18. Sri Indrajali — She is a seated “deceiving” goddess. Her elephant symbol suggests the name of Indra, with perhaps an allusion to his well-known deceits.

19. Broken — A seated yogini with a bull and skeletons among her symbols.

20. Statue missing.

21. Sri Thakini — Unknown seated goddess, however due to the camel symbol on her pedestal, linguists suggest Ushtrakini, or the cameline goddess.

22. Sri Dhanendri —Dhan means to “sound” but it is spelt with the dental dh. The name may simply mean the “sounding goddess.” She is depicted seated with a prostrate man worshipping her.

23. Statue missing.

24. Sri Uttala may mean the “swift goddess,” as implied by the antelope symbol. She is seated.

25. Sri Lampata — The “courtesan goddess” depicted seated with a prostrate male worshipper.

26. Sri Uha — This seated goddess may be the personification of the Saraswati River. Yogini 29 and 68 personify the Ganges and Jumna. The name may be derived from Uha, “to reason” meaning the “reasoning goddess” — an appropriate name for Saraswati, the goddess of speech and eloquence. This theory is supported by the peacock on her pedestal, which is the symbol of the Saraswati river.

27. Sri *tsamada — Seated goddess with a boar on her pedestal. The initial letter unknown.

28. Sri Gandhari — A winged goddess, with the symbol of a horse or ass. The name may be connected with gandharvva, “a horse,” associated with swiftness, which is also implied by her wings.

29. Sri Jahnavi —This is a well-known name of the Ganges; and as her symbol is a makara, or “crocodile,” it is certain that this is the river goddess herself.

30. Sri Dakini —This seated yogini is characterized by the Hindi term, dakin, the common name for a witch or she-demon. She has the symbols of a man and a skeleton.

31. Sri Bandhani — This seated goddess’s name is derived from bandh, to bind, or bandhan, hurting, injuring, killing. Historians suggest that the man on the pedestal may be a prisoner.

32. Sri Darppahari — Probably a mistake for Darbbahari. Darbba means a rakshasa, or demon, from dri, to “tear;” and darbbahari would be the “tearer,” — a title confirmed by the lion on the pedestal, and by the seated goddess’s lion head.

33. Sri Vaishnavi is the name of the sakti, or personified energy of Vishnu. She is seated on Vishnu’s mount garuda on the pedestal.

34. Sri Danggini — First letter doubtful. A seated yogini also featuring garuda.

35. Sri Rikshini — A crocodile is featured on the pedestal of this yogini. The value of the first letter is uncertain (see No. 27). The symbol of the crocodile seems to point to a river goddess; and Rikshini would be the name of the Narbada, which rises in the Riksha mountain. A female figure at Tewar, standing on a crocodile, is called Narbada mai, or “Mother Narbada.”

36. Sri Sakini — Wilson describes sakini as “a female divinity of an inferior character, attendant equally on Siva and Durga.” Others remark that “in the Baital Pachisi sakinis are mentioned in connection with cemeteries.” They are, in fact, the female goblins whom Raja Vikram saw eating the dead bodies. The symbol of a vulture on the pedestal of this seated goddess is, therefore, appropriate.

37. Sri Ghantali — The “bell” yogini, with a bell or ghanta on her pedestal.

38. Sri Tattari — The name implies a kettle-drum, or any musical instrument. We presume that name refers to the “trumpet,”’ as the seated goddess has an elephant’s head, and there is an elephant on the pedestal. Tatta is the imitative sound of the trumpet, like tantarara in English.

39. Not inscribed — A dancing female.

40. Sri Ganggini — The first letter is doubtful. The symbol seen is a bull.

41. Sri Bhishani — The “terrific goddess”…as in “terror”  is seated with a rayed headdress. Bhishana is a name of Siva.

42. Sri Satanu Sambara —Sambara refers to the Sambar deer, which is also seen on the pedestal of this seated goddess.

43. Sri Gahani — Ram on pedestal of this seated goddess. The first letter is doubtful. The name may mean the destroying goddess, from gah, to destroy.

44. Not inscribed — A dancing female in the style of Kali.

45. Sri Duduri — The derivation is not clear: du means “bad,” and also “to give pain.” Perhaps it is only a duplication of dur = pain, which would imply the “pain-giving” yogini. The symbol of the saddled horse remains puzzling on this seated yogini.

46. Sri Varahi — One of the saktis of Vishnu, as the Varaha Avatara. There is a boar on the pedestal, and this seated sakti goddess has a boar’s head.

47. Sri Nalini—perhaps from nal, “to bind.” There is a bull and cow on the pedestal, and the seated yogini has a cow’s head.

48. SE Entrance

49. Statue missing.

50. Sri Nandini is the title of this seated goddess Parvati. The lion on the pedestal implies that Nadini, or “roarer” may be her true name.

51. Sri Indrani —As there is no Aindri in this collection, this seated goddess Indrani must be intended as the sakti, or female energy, of Indra.

52. Sri Eruri, or Ejari — The first reading seems preferable. The yogini has a cow’s head, and there is a cow on her pedestal.

53. Sri Shandimi — Shanda means a bull; but the animal on the pedestal of this broken figure appears to be a donkey.

54. Sri Ainggini — An elephant-headed goddess, with an elephant-headed man on her pedestal. The name seems to refer to ingga, “movable,” which is itself derived from igi, “to go.”

55. Name lost — A seated goddess with a boar’s head and a boar on her pedestal.

56. Sri Teranta, or perhaps Techanta — This 20-armed seated goddess has a figure of Mahesasura on her pedestal, so her title must relate to a name of Durga, who is also called Mahishasuramardini (mardini = killer, fem.), the destroyer of Mahishasura.

57. Sri Paravi — Perhaps a mistake for Parvati, as the seated goddess has 10 arms, which point to Durga.

58. Sri Vayuvena — This broken figure’s name means “Swift as the wind.” The antelope on the pedestal may allude to her swiftness.

59. Sri Ubhera Varddhani — “The increaser of light” is the name of this broken goddess image. There is a class of 64 demi-gods named abhaswaras who, from their number, appear to have a connection with the 64 yoginis. The bird on the pedestal gives no assistance towards the meaning of the name.

60. Not inscribed — A dancing female with an elephant symbol on her pedestal.

61. Sri Sarvvato-mukhi — This goddess has 12 arms and 3 heads, with a head also between her breasts. The number of heads explain the name of  “Facing everywhere.” Her pedestal displays the leaves of the lotus and six points of a double triangle which may allude to her name.

62. Sri Mandodari­ — The name of this broken yogini means “slow-belly.” Sri Mandodari was also the name of the daughter of King Mayasura of the Danavas and the celestial dancer Hema. Mandodari was a pious woman who feared nothing but unrighteousness and lies. Her beauty and appeal led her to become the first, and favorite, wife of Ravana, the Lord of Lanka. On her pedestal two men worship her with folded hands.

63. Sri Khemukhi — The long-beaked bird on the pedestal seems to refer to the name, which may perhaps be translated “voracious mouth”” from khed, to eat. Her statue is broken.

64. Sri Jambavi — The “bear goddess,” with a bear on her pedestal, evidently points to Jambavat, the fabulous king of the bears who was the father-in-law of Krishna. This statue probably had a bear’s head; but it is now broken.

65. Sri Auraga — The first letter is not certain, and the statue is broken. A naked man on the pedestal does not offer any more clues about this figure.

66. Statue Missing.

67. Sri Thira-chitta — Probably intended for Sthira-chitta, “the firm or steady minded.” This seated goddess shows a man praying with folded hands on her pedestal.

68. Sri Yamuna — This seated goddess is the river Jumna personified. The tortoise on the pedestal was her symbol.

69. Statue Missing.

70. Sri Vibhasa — Either connected either with vibheshu, “terrible,” or with vibhitsu, “the piercer.” The skeleton and prostrate man on the pedestal suggest an appellation of Durga.

71. Sri Sinha-sinha — This lion-headed goddess, with the lion headed-man on her pedestal, is probably intended for Narasinha, the sakti or female energy of the Narasinha avatara.

72. Sri Niladambara — Probably the same as Nilambara, a female demon. The garuda on this yogini’s pedestal established her connection with Vishnu.

73. Statue worn away — A flame is still seen on the pedestal of this seated goddess.

74. Sri Antakari — A seated goddess, with open mouth, ready to devour — must mean the “death-causer,” from anta, “end or death.” Antaka is a name of Yama, the god of death; but the bull on the pedestal seems to refer to Siva, who, as Pasupati, is also the god of death and destruction.

75. Name lost — This seated goddess displays a long-nosed bull on her pedestal.

76. Sri Pingala — This seated goddess’s name means “tawny, or brownish-red.” The peacock on the pedestal points to Eaumari, the sakti of Skanda Kumara or Karttikeya.

77. Sri Ahkhala — On the pedestal two men with folded hands worship this seated sakti goddess. The reading of the name is clear but the meaning is unknown.

78. Not inscribed — A dancing yogini with a bird pictured on her base.

79. Sri Kshattra-dharmmini — The compound kshattradharmma means the duty of a kshattra, or soldier, i.e. bravery. But as kshattra is derived from kshad, “to eat, to rend, to tear to pieces,” the title of this goddess would mean the “tearer to pieces, or the devourer.” The image shows seated females with skulls in head-dresses. A bull with a chain appears on her pedestal.

80. Sri Virendri — Another images with seated females armed with sword and shield. The pedestal has a horse’s head and skeletons. Perhaps the name should be Vairendri, the “inimical goddess,” rather than Virendri, the “heroic goddess.”

81. Statue missing.

82. Sri Ridhali Devi — The seated “hurtful goddess,” from rih, to “hurt.” The animal, with claws, on the pedestal seems to confirm this derivation.

83-84 – West Entrance.

The result of this examination shows that the statue set up in this circular cloister may be divided into five distinct groups as follows:

Saktis, also called ashta-sakti……………………..8 statues

Rivers: Ganges, Jumna, and Saraswati…………3

Dancing goddesses: Kali, etc………………………4

Gods: Siva and Ganesha…………………………..2

Yoginis (chaunsat yogini) 57 intact, 7 lost……….64

Total……………………………………………………..81

Two entrances [= 3 spaces]…………………………3

Total……………………………………………………..84

Yogini statue inscriptions.

Lost Goddesses by Trudy Jacobsen

By Kent Davis

This article is based on research presented by Trudy Jacobsen in her book “Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in the History of Cambodia“.

“Lost Goddesses” traces the trajectory of female influence in Cambodia from ancient to modern times. Immediately following her Preface, Dr. Jacobsen opened the book with a Glossary. The vocabulary that a society uses is an important indicator of values, priorities and beliefs. It therefore struck me as a practical, original and brilliant idea to first introduce the female-related terms that her investigation would include.

The list below includes Khmer, Pali, French and Sanskrit terms with English meanings. With the author’s kind permission, I extracted this list from the complete glossary that appears in “Lost Goddesses“. I have also augmented her list with a sampling of additional terms from the online Khmer-English dictionary at the Southeast Asian Language Library. I regret any mistakes or errors in my attempts to transliterate some of the additional terms. Note that this list is by no means exhaustive, nor is it a complete list of female related words in Khmer…but the words below are certainly explore some fascinating social, political and spiritual concepts.

Khmer Words About Women

Devata at Rajarani temple in Orissa

Bhubaneshwar, Orissa – Set like a gem among fertile ricefields, the 11th century Rajarani Temple is a breathtaking example of of Orissan style. It is also an immediate architectural predecessor of the Khmer Empire’s greatest monuments.

As at Angkor Wat, the Bayon, Preah Khan, Thommanon, Ta Som and other Khmer temples, we find female images as the majority of figures on Rajarani’s main structure. Playful celestial nymphs, devata, apsara or yaksini, dance upon lotus buds, framed by lush plants and foliage. Unlike the subdued “courtly devata” of the Khmers, these maidens are quite playful, and we see them engaged in romantic dalliance, enticing visitors, holding pet birds, adjusting jewelry, cradling children and gazing at themselves in mirrors.

The Dikpalas: Guardians of the Eight Directions

Agni, god of fire and guardian of the southeast

In addition to these heavenly beauties, the temple features eight “dikpalas”: guardians protecting the tower at the compass points. The guardians begin with the head of the demigods Indra in the east; Agni the god of fire (southeast); Yama god of death (south); Nirriti goddess of the black asuras, also known as Kali, (southwest); Varuna the god of water (west); Vayu the god of air (northwest); Kubera the god of weath shown with a wish-granting tree (north); and Īśāna, the face of Siva and master of all knowledge (northeast).

Northeastern Thailand, a region whose strong people were shaped by Khmer influence, is still to this day called Isaan, derived from Īśāna, the Hindu god of the northwest.

Like their Indian counterparts, Khmer temples were designed to incorporate alignment to certain compass points, however there are surprising variations. Asger Mollerup, a Danish author, linguist and archeo-astronomer, clearly establishes that the Khmers (like the ancient Indians, Chinese and Greeks) had a grasp of planetary movements far beyond what modern people believe they had. Circa 1,000 AD, the Khmers were familiar with the astronomical principles detailed in the Surya Siddhanta.

His article from the Thai site Muang Borarn Journal, considers the orientation of the Khmer temple of Phanom Rung in relation to celestial events. For a wealth of additional information, consult Mollerup’s research website, Sundial, Calendar & Khmer Temples, including this article about the “Navagraha,” or celestial deities of directions, that he examines in a number of Khmer temples.

Images of the Gods by Vittorio Roveda

Other astronomical research relating to Khmer temples by Jean-Pierre Lacroix and Robert Bywater is available at their site AncientCartography.net.

How divine images of Hindu gods and symbols in Khmer monuments relate to compass point associations is therefore an interesting area of inquiry. In his book, Images of the Gods, author and researcher Vittorio Roveda points out the surprising fact that Angkor Wat contradicts the Hindu rules of guardian placement: the gods there actually appear opposite from their prescribed locations. Roveda’s theory is that the temple designers and iconographers envisioned a mirror image in their construction plan, for reasons that are still unknown.

The chart below may inspire readers to make some new discoveries:

Adapted from Wikpedia “The Guardians of the Directions”

Ancient Angels and Modern Cambodian Dance

Above the figures of the major Rajarani gods we see flying angels. What’s curious is that these angels are in the identical pose that the ancient Cambodian dance traditions uses to symbolize flying to this very day! This inspired this article about the history of divine flight. If the link is not yet active, the article isn’t complete, but will be soon.

Flying entities above the god adopt a pose with the trailing leg bent upwards, identical to the pose still used to signify flying in Cambodian dance.

Flying entities above the god adopt a pose with the trailing leg bent upwards, identical to the pose still used to signify flying in Cambodian dance.

Cambodian dancer in the same flying pose depicted in more than a millennium of Indian art. Courtesy "Earth in Flower" by Paul Cravath

The Origin of Rajarani’s Name

In this region of Orissa, “rajarani” is the local name of the rich red and gold sandstone that the temple is made from. However, there is a debate about the temple’s name that is inspired by the name of the city Bhubaneswar itself: all Hindu temples dedicated to the God Shiva in that town end in the suffix “eswar.” Non-Shaivite temple names are based on the presiding deity (e.g. Parvati temple).

The Orissan king who built Rajarani temple died before the temple was complete. The ceremony to install the main deity was therefore never performed, leaving Rajarani eternally godless. At least one scholar has argued that the Rajarani name was applied at a much later date because of the local stone used, and that this shrine was originally built to honor Shiva, like many others in the town.

Rajarani temple is an extraordinary statement to the brilliance of the Indian architects, builders and spiritual leaders of Orissa. I hope I am one day able to supplement the modest gallery below:

By Kent Davis  Buy this book on Amazon

To the author’s credit, her compact book (only 107 pages) in an ideal introduction to this important temple group built in central India from 900-1200AD. This review appears here because the latter part of Khajuraho’s era is contemporary with the construction of Angkor Wat, the largest religious structure built in human history, which is the focus of our devata research.

Khajuraho by Devangana Desai

Khajuraho is also filled with female imagery, but of an entirely different type. While Khajuraho depicts graphic sexual acts and sexually charged female carvings, Angkor Wat depicts women in another spiritual context, as yet undefined.

Ms. Desai’s book covers a broad range of topics including the history of the Khajuraho monuments, their architectural components and she addresses controversies inspired by their erotic content. The book has 13 illustrations, 2 maps and 29 photographs that clearly illustrate points raised in the text.

Travelers should consider this book an essential item for a visit; it includes a short appendix at the end with details about restaurants, hotels, transportation, guides and museums at the site.

For an in depth view of the topic, refer to the author’s 1996 book “The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho” and her 1984 book “Erotic Sculpture of India: A Socio-Cultural Study.”

This volume is from the Oxford University Press “Monumental Legacy” series about World Heritage Sites in India. Other books in the series cover the Ellora caves, Christian churches of Goa, Buddhist monuments of Sanchi, and more.

Vijayanagara: Splendor in Ruins

Another related books that will be of interest:

Vijayanagara: Splendor in Ruins about the 14th c. cultural center of Hampi

• Paperback: 124 pages
• Publisher: OUP India (January 9, 2003)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 0195656431
• ISBN-13: 978-0195656435
• Product Dimensions: 8.4 x 5.5 x 0.4 inches